清流与晚清政治变革
发布时间：2018-09-09 15:22
【摘要】：在激流巨变的晚清社会,政治变革无疑是最醒目的时代主题之一,社会各阶级,特别是士大夫阶层竞相提出改革主张,助推着政治变革的起伏跌宕和晚清社会的剧烈变迁。崛起于光绪初年的清流,其主要活动时期几乎与晚清政治变革相始终,而其特殊的政治地位和思想文化观念又对晚清政治变革产生了极大影响,所以研究清流与晚清政治变革,不仅对深入理解晚清社会的变迁,政治变革的性质、发展脉络和社会影响大有助益,而且对当今社会也有一定的借鉴意义。 “清流”称号所表征的内涵,与以它为名的群体所进行的具体的政治活动相联系,并在特定的政治社会环境发生作用。作为与“浊流”的对应语,“清流”是由儒家伦理道德所标尺的理想士大夫形象,并作为观念在儒家士大夫中间延续着。但“清流”并非仅作为观念而存在,在特定的历史时期,一些士大夫以儒家的政治理想和道德原则相号召,以“清流”为名,形成政治集团,提出一致的政治主张。联系“清流”的行为方式——“清议”,“清流”作为政治派别最早出现在东汉末年。东汉末年的“太学生”、唐末“清流”、南宋的抵抗派、明末的“东林党”其实都是政治集团,是实际意义上的“清流党”。而时至晚清,由于受社会性质的影响,清流又有着与前代清流不尽相似的特点,他们不仅有捍卫传统的一面,又在“西学”的冲击下,有着变通“中学”,以适应时代发展的一面。晚清时期的“清流”,经时人和后来一些小说家、掌故家的有意夸谈和热炒,概念变得非常模糊,称呼五花八门,具体人数谁也说不清楚,当时凡是负气敢谏,而操守尚可的官员,就有可能被贴上“清流”的标签。尽管众说纷纭,言人人殊,但对清流的兴起时间、活动方式、主要代表、首领人物、前后分期等基本情况又大致认同。至于晚清清流兴起的原因,主要是因为当时言论比较开放,政治环境较为宽松,但也与宫廷权争和朝臣党争有一定的关系。他们是权力斗争的工具,但又在政治斗争的夹缝里鼓荡声势,成为晚清时期一股不可忽视的政治势力。清流以名节相标榜,评议朝政,臧否人物,凌厉无比,在对外关系方面,一味强硬,积极主战,在很大程度上影响当时的政治走向。 清流作为一股政治势力,叱咤于晚清政坛,无疑对当时风起云涌的政治变革产生影响,但他们的改革主张很大程度上由其思想倾向所决定。他们中的绝大多数都是经科举而入仕途,是传统文化的饱学之士,自然也继承了传统文化中的精华──经世思想,所以他们有着求通务实的思想品格和济世安民的社会责任感。然而,他们毕竟久受传统思想的浸染,秉承了忠君卫道的传统理念,所以又习惯于立足于传统的治国之道,从传统治术中寻求“医世药方”。既求通务实,又忠君卫道,清流这一身两性的特点,决定了他们在晚清政治变革的大潮中,思想始终处于矛盾、对冲的胶着状态。 晚清的政治变革实际上是一场学习西方的运动,而“师夷”思潮缘起于一败再败于西方,当这一思潮广泛流布,并逐渐被洋务派付诸实践之时,散发着浓浓士大夫气息的清流仍然死守传统文化的阵地,依据孔孟之道来回应西学的逼迫。抱着严“夷夏之防”的传统观念,清流在初兴时期以保守的姿态出现,把洋务派学习西方看成是“师事夷人”之举而痛加鞑伐。大致在十九世纪八十年代,随着对西学认识的加深,尤其是一些清流骨干外放地方任职之后,在实际事务中痛感传统的一套不敷实用,他们的思想开始发生变化,把目光投向洋务。在他们看来,器物层面的西化可以被纳入他们崇奉的儒学体系中,作为“术用”的补充,与他们恪守的儒家之道并行不悖,所以主张在“道”不变的前提下,有选择地学习西方的“器”,从而提出广泛的洋务军事、经济和教育思想。清流主张学习西方,与洋务派有着许多共识,但两派的分歧仍然很大,清流不满洋务事业腐败丛生、效率低下,常常对其大肆攻讦,尤其是洋务派的对外妥协外交政策,引起清流的强烈不满,时常遭到他们的诟病。 甲午战争之后,受空前民族危机的刺激,要求变法图强的呼声汇成山呼海啸之势,学习西方的先进科技文化,不再被视为“师事夷人”之举,而被看成救时之方,这一点得到当时士大夫们的普遍认同。在呼吁政治变革的巨大声浪中,出于图强御侮的现实考虑,清流主张变法,并提出许多切中时弊的改革方案,有些甚至触及制度的边缘。为了推动政治变革的顺利进行,清流引主张变革的激进者维新派为同道,对其大力荐举、保护,并与之合作,两者在兼容牵动中推动着改革的发展,但由于两派的思想文化观始终存在着很大差距,清流把变法控制在封建根本政治制度所能容纳的范围之内,不能接受维新派过激的变法主张。在改革的进程和内容方面,维新派主张“全变”、“速变”,而清流却是建议“渐变”、“小变”,对康有为提出的“伪经改制”又深为不满,所以两派逐渐出现分歧。于是清流一改原来对维新派支持的态度,转而反对康、梁等维新派代表人物在变革上的一些举措。清流簇拥在光绪帝周围,本想通过变法来争取政治上的主动权,与以慈禧为首的后党集团争衡,但由于实力的悬殊,结果他们被后党以各种“莫须有”的罪名一一剪除。 然而清流并非如守旧派一样,死抱传统不放,在民族危机空前严重的情况下,随着对西学认识的加深,他们开始了由守“道”到变“道”的嬗变。张之洞、张謇这两位清流的主要代表人物,分别在洋务运动和维新变法时期,思想和身份发生了一些变化,但无论怎样变,都是作为清流在思想上的延伸和身份上的交叉。他们在“清末新政”时期极其活跃,其变革主张表现出与以前不同的特点。遭庚子之役的重创后,清廷发布改革上谕,“清末新政”就是在内外交困的形势下拉开了序幕。一向持重练达的张之洞,经过一番频繁的函电往来后,窥测出朝廷变法的真实用意,招募一批清流人士拟写奏折,与两江总督刘坤一联衔上《江楚会奏改革三折》。“三折”在变通科举、用人行政、司法制度和经济法规等方面,已经涉及到体制本身的改革,但基本上仍是《劝学篇》的翻版,重弹“中体西用”的老调。而一向以“平生万事居人后”的张謇,在1903年从日本游历归国之后,思想发生很大变化,认识到非立宪不能救国,开始积极投身于宪政运动,成为立宪派的主要代表。但因清政府缺乏立宪的诚心,立宪运动最后无果而终。 总之,清流士大夫感于民族危机的严重,从自己的思想认识出发,主张政治变革,而其本身的特殊性决定了他们政治变革思想独具特色。清流提倡政治变革的动机是要图强御侮,但是最终没有达到目的,分析其中原因,可为我们提供深刻的启示。
[Abstract]:In the late Qing Dynasty, political change was undoubtedly one of the most striking themes of the times. All social classes, especially the scholar-bureaucrats, put forward proposals for reform, which promoted the ups and downs of political change and drastic changes of the late Qing Dynasty. From beginning to end, its special political status and ideological and cultural concepts had a great impact on the political changes in the late Qing Dynasty. Therefore, the study of the Qingliu and the political changes in the late Qing Dynasty is not only helpful to understand the social changes in the late Qing Dynasty, the nature of the political changes, the development context and social influence, but also has a certain reference significance for today's society.
The connotation represented by the title of "Qingliu" is related to the specific political activities carried out by other groups and plays a role in the specific political and social environment. But "Qingliu" did not exist only as a concept. In a particular historical period, some scholars called on Confucian political ideals and moral principles to form political groups in the name of "Qingliu" and put forward consistent political propositions. In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the "Tai students" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the "Qingliu" in the late Tang Dynasty, the resistance in the Southern Song Dynasty, and the "Donglin Party" in the late Ming Dynasty were all political groups and "Qingliu Party" in the practical sense. In the late Qing Dynasty, the Qingliu was deliberately exaggerated and speculated by the contemporaries and later novelists, and the concept became very vague. The names were varied. No one could tell the exact number of people. At that time, the Qingliu was always daring to criticize. Although there are different opinions and different spokesmen, they generally agree with the basic situation of Qingliu, such as the time of its rise, the mode of its activities, the main representatives, the leaders and the stages before and after. As for the reasons for the rise of Qingliu in the late Qing Dynasty, the main reason is that the speech was more open and the political environment was more favorable. They were the tools of the power struggle, but they stirred up momentum in the cracks of the political struggle and became a political force that could not be ignored in the late Qing Dynasty. The war, to a large extent, affected the political trend at that time.
Qingliu, as a political force, exerted great influence on the political changes in the late Qing Dynasty, but their ideas of reform were largely determined by their ideological tendency. Most of them entered the official career through imperial examinations, were scholars of traditional culture, and naturally inherited the essence of traditional culture. However, after all, they have long been influenced by the traditional ideas and inherited the traditional concept of loyalty to the emperor and the way of safeguarding the morality. Therefore, they are accustomed to the traditional way of governing the country and seek "medical prescription" from the traditional way of governing the country. Junwei Dao and Qingliu, the characteristics of both sexes, decided that in the tide of political change in the late Qing Dynasty, their thoughts were always in contradiction and hedging.
In fact, the political reform in the late Qing Dynasty was a movement to learn from the West, and the thought of "learning from the Yi" originated from one defeat and then defeated in the West. When this thought spread widely and was gradually put into practice by the Westernization School, the Qingliu still adhered to the position of the traditional culture with strong scholar-bureaucrat flavor, and responded to the coercion of Western learning according to Confucianism and Mencius. Following the traditional concept of "Yi Xia Zhi Fang", Qing Liu emerged as a conservative figure in the early days of the Qing Dynasty, and took the Westernization School's study of the West as an act of "learning from foreigners" to aggravate its attacks. In the 1880s of the 19th century, with the deepening of its understanding of Western learning, especially after some of the Qing backbones were laid off from their posts in other places, Qing Liu began to work in practical affairs. In their view, the Westernization of the object level can be incorporated into the Confucian system they advocate, as a supplement to the "use of art" and in line with their adherence to the Confucian doctrine, so they advocate that the "Tao" remain unchanged, selectively. Qingliu advocates learning from the West and has a lot of common understanding with the Westernization School, but the differences between the two groups are still very large. Qingliu is dissatisfied with the corruption and inefficiency of the Westernization cause, and often raises aggressive criticism against it, especially the foreign policy of compromise of the Westernization School, which leads to the Qing Dynasty. The strong dissatisfaction of the flow is often criticized by them.
After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, stimulated by the unprecedented national crisis, the call for reform and strong efforts converged into the tsunami situation, learning the advanced western science and technology and culture, no longer regarded as "learning from foreigners" move, but as a way to save the time, which was generally recognized by the scholars and doctors at that time. In the huge wave of appealing for political change, out of the intention of learning. In order to promote the smooth progress of political reform, Qingliu led the radical reformers who advocated change to advocate for the same cause, vigorously recommended, protected and cooperated with them. Both of them promoted the reform in a compatible way. However, due to the great disparity between the ideological and cultural views of the two schools, Qingliu held the reform within the scope of the basic feudal political system and could not accept the radical reform propositions of the Reformists. As a result, Qingliu changed his attitude toward the reformers and opposed some measures taken by the representatives of the reformers such as Kang and Liang. They competed with the post-party group headed by Cixi, but because of the disparity in strength, they were cut off one by one by the post-party on various "unnecessary" charges.
However, Qingliu is not as conservative as the clinging to tradition. Under the unprecedented serious national crisis, with the deepening of understanding of Western learning, they began to change from "Tao" to "Tao". Zhang Zhidong and Zhang Jian, the two main representatives of Qingliu, respectively, occurred in the Westernization Movement and the Reform and Reform Period. They were extremely active in the period of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, and their ideas of reform showed different characteristics from those before. After the Boxer Battle, the Qing government issued an edict on reform. The New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty was a pull-down in the situation of internal and external diplomatic difficulties. After frequent correspondence and correspondence, Zhang Zhidong, who had always been a vigorous practitioner, discovered the true intention of the court's reform and recruited a group of people from the Qing Dynasty to write a memorial book. In the title of "Jiangchu Huizu Reform Triple Discount" with Liu Kun, governor of the two rivers, Zhang Zhidong "Triple Discount" has already been used in adjusting the imperial examinations, employing personnel administration, judicial system and economic regulations. It involves the reform of the system itself, but basically it is still a copy of the "Persuasion to Learn" and a repetition of the old tune of "Chinese Sports and Western Use". Main representative. However, because of the lack of sincerity of constitutionalism, the constitutional movement finally failed.
In a word, Qingliu scholar-bureaucrats felt the serious national crisis and advocated political change from their own ideological understanding. Their own particularity determined their unique political reform thought. Apocalypse.
【学位授予单位】：湖南大学
【学位级别】：博士
【学位授予年份】：2011
【分类号】：K252
本文编号：2232766
[Abstract]:In the late Qing Dynasty, political change was undoubtedly one of the most striking themes of the times. All social classes, especially the scholar-bureaucrats, put forward proposals for reform, which promoted the ups and downs of political change and drastic changes of the late Qing Dynasty. From beginning to end, its special political status and ideological and cultural concepts had a great impact on the political changes in the late Qing Dynasty. Therefore, the study of the Qingliu and the political changes in the late Qing Dynasty is not only helpful to understand the social changes in the late Qing Dynasty, the nature of the political changes, the development context and social influence, but also has a certain reference significance for today's society.
The connotation represented by the title of "Qingliu" is related to the specific political activities carried out by other groups and plays a role in the specific political and social environment. But "Qingliu" did not exist only as a concept. In a particular historical period, some scholars called on Confucian political ideals and moral principles to form political groups in the name of "Qingliu" and put forward consistent political propositions. In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the "Tai students" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the "Qingliu" in the late Tang Dynasty, the resistance in the Southern Song Dynasty, and the "Donglin Party" in the late Ming Dynasty were all political groups and "Qingliu Party" in the practical sense. In the late Qing Dynasty, the Qingliu was deliberately exaggerated and speculated by the contemporaries and later novelists, and the concept became very vague. The names were varied. No one could tell the exact number of people. At that time, the Qingliu was always daring to criticize. Although there are different opinions and different spokesmen, they generally agree with the basic situation of Qingliu, such as the time of its rise, the mode of its activities, the main representatives, the leaders and the stages before and after. As for the reasons for the rise of Qingliu in the late Qing Dynasty, the main reason is that the speech was more open and the political environment was more favorable. They were the tools of the power struggle, but they stirred up momentum in the cracks of the political struggle and became a political force that could not be ignored in the late Qing Dynasty. The war, to a large extent, affected the political trend at that time.
Qingliu, as a political force, exerted great influence on the political changes in the late Qing Dynasty, but their ideas of reform were largely determined by their ideological tendency. Most of them entered the official career through imperial examinations, were scholars of traditional culture, and naturally inherited the essence of traditional culture. However, after all, they have long been influenced by the traditional ideas and inherited the traditional concept of loyalty to the emperor and the way of safeguarding the morality. Therefore, they are accustomed to the traditional way of governing the country and seek "medical prescription" from the traditional way of governing the country. Junwei Dao and Qingliu, the characteristics of both sexes, decided that in the tide of political change in the late Qing Dynasty, their thoughts were always in contradiction and hedging.
In fact, the political reform in the late Qing Dynasty was a movement to learn from the West, and the thought of "learning from the Yi" originated from one defeat and then defeated in the West. When this thought spread widely and was gradually put into practice by the Westernization School, the Qingliu still adhered to the position of the traditional culture with strong scholar-bureaucrat flavor, and responded to the coercion of Western learning according to Confucianism and Mencius. Following the traditional concept of "Yi Xia Zhi Fang", Qing Liu emerged as a conservative figure in the early days of the Qing Dynasty, and took the Westernization School's study of the West as an act of "learning from foreigners" to aggravate its attacks. In the 1880s of the 19th century, with the deepening of its understanding of Western learning, especially after some of the Qing backbones were laid off from their posts in other places, Qing Liu began to work in practical affairs. In their view, the Westernization of the object level can be incorporated into the Confucian system they advocate, as a supplement to the "use of art" and in line with their adherence to the Confucian doctrine, so they advocate that the "Tao" remain unchanged, selectively. Qingliu advocates learning from the West and has a lot of common understanding with the Westernization School, but the differences between the two groups are still very large. Qingliu is dissatisfied with the corruption and inefficiency of the Westernization cause, and often raises aggressive criticism against it, especially the foreign policy of compromise of the Westernization School, which leads to the Qing Dynasty. The strong dissatisfaction of the flow is often criticized by them.
After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, stimulated by the unprecedented national crisis, the call for reform and strong efforts converged into the tsunami situation, learning the advanced western science and technology and culture, no longer regarded as "learning from foreigners" move, but as a way to save the time, which was generally recognized by the scholars and doctors at that time. In the huge wave of appealing for political change, out of the intention of learning. In order to promote the smooth progress of political reform, Qingliu led the radical reformers who advocated change to advocate for the same cause, vigorously recommended, protected and cooperated with them. Both of them promoted the reform in a compatible way. However, due to the great disparity between the ideological and cultural views of the two schools, Qingliu held the reform within the scope of the basic feudal political system and could not accept the radical reform propositions of the Reformists. As a result, Qingliu changed his attitude toward the reformers and opposed some measures taken by the representatives of the reformers such as Kang and Liang. They competed with the post-party group headed by Cixi, but because of the disparity in strength, they were cut off one by one by the post-party on various "unnecessary" charges.
However, Qingliu is not as conservative as the clinging to tradition. Under the unprecedented serious national crisis, with the deepening of understanding of Western learning, they began to change from "Tao" to "Tao". Zhang Zhidong and Zhang Jian, the two main representatives of Qingliu, respectively, occurred in the Westernization Movement and the Reform and Reform Period. They were extremely active in the period of the New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty, and their ideas of reform showed different characteristics from those before. After the Boxer Battle, the Qing government issued an edict on reform. The New Deal in the late Qing Dynasty was a pull-down in the situation of internal and external diplomatic difficulties. After frequent correspondence and correspondence, Zhang Zhidong, who had always been a vigorous practitioner, discovered the true intention of the court's reform and recruited a group of people from the Qing Dynasty to write a memorial book. In the title of "Jiangchu Huizu Reform Triple Discount" with Liu Kun, governor of the two rivers, Zhang Zhidong "Triple Discount" has already been used in adjusting the imperial examinations, employing personnel administration, judicial system and economic regulations. It involves the reform of the system itself, but basically it is still a copy of the "Persuasion to Learn" and a repetition of the old tune of "Chinese Sports and Western Use". Main representative. However, because of the lack of sincerity of constitutionalism, the constitutional movement finally failed.
In a word, Qingliu scholar-bureaucrats felt the serious national crisis and advocated political change from their own ideological understanding. Their own particularity determined their unique political reform thought. Apocalypse.
【学位授予单位】：湖南大学
【学位级别】：博士
【学位授予年份】：2011
【分类号】：K252
【参考文献】
相关期刊论文 前5条
1 郑峰;论晚清前清流之清议[J];甘肃社会科学;1999年S1期
2 孙明;清遗民关怀中的治统与道统——以沈曾植、曹廷杰为个案[J];史林;2003年04期
3 廖宗麟;张佩纶会办福建海防并非慈禧“瓦解清流”的阴谋[J];历史教学;2002年01期
4 肖自力;论文廷式的中西文化比较观[J];江西社会科学;2000年07期
5 马忠文;1888年康有为在北京活动探微[J];浙江学刊;2002年04期
，本文编号：2232766
本文链接：https://www.wllwen.com/shekelunwen/zgjxds/2232766.html
