清代山东农业发展与民生研究

发布时间：2018-07-04 09:27

本文选题：清代山东 + 二年三熟制　；参考：《南开大学》2010年博士论文

【摘要】：山东地处黄河下游华北平原东部,地貌以平原为主,西部有运河贯通南北,东南、东北濒临黄海和渤海,其间河流错布,水资源丰富,易于农作物灌溉和农产品流通；全区受北温带季风气候控制,雨热同期,发展农业的自然条件优越。在清代,山东农业的发展首先表现在耕地的垦殖上,大致分为以下几个阶段：顺治朝至康熙朝末年的七八十年间,以复原性垦殖为主。清初统治者为了保障垦荒工作的顺利进行,政府承认垦荒者对土地的所有权,同时辅以推迟起科、资助耕牛农具等扶持政策,并充分利用地主阶级占有大量财力、物力的优势,垦殖取得了较为理想的效果,极大程度上推动了荒地的开垦；至雍正朝时,土壤肥沃之地基本上已被开垦无遗,人民开始将目光转移到近山丘地、沿海滩涂、湖滨洲滩以及山头地角等零星土地,这一过程大概持续到道光年间。需要特别指出的是雍正帝即位后,盲目认为“惟开垦一事最有裨益”,急于求成,且无切实可行的方案,成效不大；乾隆朝吸取了雍正朝垦殖的教训,通过疏通河道、修建大规模的水利设施,使许多淹涝废地得以垦成熟地；嘉道年间耕地面积的扩展主要得益于外来作物番薯、花生、玉米等的种植,它们在荒地、山地、丘陵等贫瘠土壤上均能生长,很大程度上拓展了种植空间。道光以后,清政府面临外来侵略,再加上天灾人祸,许多土地抛荒,这一时期垦殖的重点又转为对抛荒地的复垦。耕地的开发和利用离不开人的介入,人口的多少(或劳动力的多少)对农业发展影响甚巨。从清初至乾隆初年,山东人口的大量繁衍在满足农业对劳动力的需求、促进土地垦殖等方面发挥了积极的作用；同时,人地关系的矛盾也越来越突出,尤其是在乾隆朝之后,土地的增长速度已经远远赶不上人口的增长速度,劳动力已经从不足变为逐渐饱和。由于人口的增长,人均占有的耕地越来越少,传统的种植业难以养活如此多的人口,迫使小农不得不设法实现土地资源的优化配置,在农业生产中发展了麦豆复种为主的二年三熟耕作制。二年三熟制形成于明末清初,不过尚不成熟。雍乾朝以后山东省随着人口的日益增长,为其发展提供了充足的劳动力,推动了该制度的逐渐成熟；另外,在这一制度的发展中,作物的搭配模式发挥了重大的作用。山东二年三熟制的作物搭配是以麦——豆——秋杂轮种为主,其中冬小麦核心地位的确立是二年三熟制的重中之重,与之同时,大豆、高粱等作物种植比重有了一定水平的上升,使得种植结构更加合理。清中叶山东省二年三熟制的成熟,使得复种指数有了大幅度的提高,增加了粮食的亩产量,这在养活更多人口的同时,也为经济作物种植面积的扩展创造了条件。其中以植棉业的发展最为突出,到清代中叶前后山东已经形成了三大棉产区,植棉的州县发展到90多个；烟草业、油料作物、果树乃至菜蔬种植也有了很大的发展,大大加深了农业商品化的程度。在社会经济发展提供的可能条件下,种粮户、种植经济作物农户以及混合种植型农户因地制宜,为生存和致富而进行生活性生产和商品性生产,实现着利益的最大化。此外,以出售为目的的棉纺织业、编织业、皮毛加工业等家庭副业也有了长足的发展,农副结合成为家庭经济发展的主要模式。整个清代山东的农业生产和家庭生产处于结构不断调整和优化的过程之中,二年三熟制的发展和农副结合的模式,充分利用了丰富的劳动力资源,在土地和土地之外创造价值,从而为家庭的生活来源拓宽了道路。
[Abstract]:Shandong is located in the east of the North China Plain in the lower reaches of the Yellow River. The landforms are mainly plain, the West has canal through the north and south, the southeast, and the northeast is on the verge of the Yellow Sea and Bohai, and the river is wrong with the river, the water is rich, it is easy to irrigate the crops and the circulation of agricultural products; the whole region is controlled by the northern temperate monsoon climate, the rain and heat are in the same period, and the natural conditions of agriculture are superior to the development of agriculture.
In the Qing Dynasty, the development of agriculture in Shandong was first manifested in the cultivation of cultivated land, which was roughly divided into the following stages: seventy or eighty years from Shunzhi Dynasty to the last year of Kangxi Dynasty, reclaimed reclamation mainly. The support policy of farm implements and so on, and fully utilizing the landlord class to occupy a large amount of financial resources and the advantage of material resources, has achieved more ideal effects and greatly promoted the reclamation of the wasteland. When the Yong Zheng Dynasty, the fertile soil of the soil had been reclaimed basically, and the people began to turn their eyes to the hills, coastal beaches, and lakeshore beaches. As well as the scattered lands such as the corner of the mountain, this process lasted about to the Daoguang period. It was important to point out that after emperor Yong Zheng was in the throne, it was blind to think that "only the most beneficial" was "the most beneficial", and that there was no practical plan and little effect. The Qianlong Dynasty learned from the lessons of Yong Zheng's reclaim, and built a large scale through dredging the river. In the Jiadu period, the expansion of arable land was mainly due to the cultivation of exotic crops, such as sweet potatoes, peanuts, and corn, which could grow on barren soils, such as wasteland, mountain, hilly, and so on. To a great extent, the planting space was expanded. After the light of the road, the Qing government was confronted with foreign aggression and added to the sky. Disasters and disasters caused many land to be abandoned. During this period, the focus of reclamation was converted to reclamation of wasteland.
The development and utilization of cultivated land can not be separated from human intervention, the number of people (or the number of labor) has great impact on agricultural development. From the early Qing Dynasty to the first year of the Qianlong period, the large population of Shandong has played a positive role in meeting the demand of agriculture for the labor force and promoting the land reclamation. At the same time, the contradiction between human and land relations is becoming more and more obvious. After the Qianlong Dynasty, especially after the Qianlong Dynasty, the growth rate of land has been far from the growth rate of the population, the labor force has changed from insufficient to gradually saturated. As the population growth, the per capita cultivated land is less and less, the traditional planting industry is difficult to feed so many people, forcing the small farmers to try to optimize the land resources. In the agricultural production, two years and three cropping systems were developed.
In the two years, the three ripening system was formed in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty, but it is not yet mature. After the emperor Qian Dynasty, Shandong Province, with the growing population, provided sufficient labor for its development, and promoted the gradual maturity of the system. In addition, in the development of this system, the pattern of the collocation of crops played a significant role. In the two year of Shandong, the three cropping system of crops was built. In addition, the main position of the winter wheat is the weight of the two year and three ripening system. At the same time, the planting proportion of soybean, sorghum and other crops has risen to a certain level, making the planting structure more reasonable.
In the middle of the Qing Dynasty, the maturity of the two year three ripening system in Shandong province made the compound index increase greatly and increase the yield per mu of grain, which created the conditions for the expansion of the planting area of the economic crops, as well as the expansion of the planting area of the economic crops. Among them, the development of the cotton plant was the most prominent. In the middle of the Qing Dynasty, there had been three cotton production in the middle of the Qing Dynasty. In the area, the cotton planting state and county have developed to more than 90, the tobacco industry, the oil crops, the fruit trees and even the vegetable planting have also developed greatly, which greatly deepened the degree of agricultural commercialization. Under the possible conditions of social and economic development, planting grain households, planting economic crop farmers and mixed planting type farmers are in the light of local conditions for survival and prosperity. In addition, the cotton textile industry, the knitting industry, the fur processing industry and other family sideline industries, which are for sale, have also made great progress, and the agricultural and sideline integration has become the main mode of family economic development.
The agricultural production and family production in Shandong in the whole Qing Dynasty are in the process of continuous adjustment and optimization of the structure. The development of the three ripening system in two years and the mode of agricultural and sideline integration make full use of the rich labor resources and create value outside the land and the land, thus widening the way for the family's life.
【学位授予单位】：南开大学
【学位级别】：博士
【学位授予年份】：2010
【分类号】：F329;K249

【参考文献】