气候变化与可持续旅游研究--以菲律宾市为例

发布时间：2016-04-28 09:10

I. Introduction介绍
去年，菲律宾的超级台风海燕蹂躏。死亡人数超过6000人，几乎2000人失踪。有超过1200万人受到了台风的影响，并留下了毁灭和绝望的灾难性的场景，当它在2013年11月8日登陆时。菲律宾人已经看到和经历了许多在菲律宾的台风。但随着持续风速为每小时310公里以上，海盐是一个最大的，是有记录的历史。
这是第三次在不到12个月的时间里，菲律宾的灾难发生了。2013八月，台风潭美造成吕宋岛上巨大的洪水。2012十二月，台风宝霞死亡达2000人，在棉兰老岛造成了17亿美元的赔偿金（schiermeier，2013）。海盐可以轻易地超过数字：总的经济影响可能达到140亿美元。这是根据报告的高级保险分析师在彭博社纽约（schiermeier，2013）。
许多专家认为，海盐是气候变化的结果。气候变化是影响这些事件的一个重要因素，它变得更加激烈了。在美国北部，有减少在西部山区积雪，在拉丁美洲的美国，有热带森林逐渐取代的证据，而在欧洲，是内陆的洪水风险增加。在发展中国家，像菲律宾这样的发展中国家的孩子是受到了最严重的打击，尽管这是造成气候变化的最不负责任的人。除非我们开始认真对待这个问题，据专家介绍，与气候相关的灾害3亿7500万人每年2015的影响，从2亿6300万到2010（阿什，2013）。台风影响菲律宾旅游据报道，菲律宾GDP的5.9%来自旅游业（Prisco 2013）。海燕台风在菲律宾中部和南部的影响将会对国家的负面影响GDP从游客不选择国家为目的地的度假选择造成的。机场被台风海燕保持最顶尖的目标可达的大规模破坏，包括长滩岛岛卡利博机场和机场，宿务麦克坦国际机场，保和通过塔比拉兰机场，伊洛伊洛通过伊洛伊洛和巴哥洛机场，和普林塞萨港，巴拉望通过普林塞萨港机场（Prisco 2013）。另一个问题是在菲律宾被台风海燕造成的停电和停电。为了保持运行和运行，许多酒店都在汽油发电机上运行，但燃料供应可能会耗尽，根本没有供应。有情况下，，需要天才能获得下一个供应，所以有人说，酒店只是用蜡烛点。电力供应不足导致旅行或取消预订。
Last year, the Philippines was devastated by super typhoon Haiyan. The death toll stands at more than 6,000 people and almost 2,000 people are still missing. There were more than 12 million people that have been affected by the monster typhoon and left behind catastrophic scenes of destruction and despair when it made land fall on November 8, 2013. Filipinos have seen and experienced many typhoons in the Philippines. But with sustained winds of more than 310 kilometers per hour, Haiyan is one of the biggest that was ever recorded in history.

It was the third time that disaster has struck the Philippines in less than 12 months. In August 2013, Typhoon Trami caused massive flooding on the island of Luzon. In December 2012, Typhoon Bopha killed up to 2,000 people and caused some US$1.7 billion in damages on the island of Mindanao (Schiermeier, 2013). Haiyan could easily surpass that figures: its total economic impact could reach US$14 billion. This is according to a report by a senior insurance analyst at Bloomberg in New York (Schiermeier, 2013).
Many experts believe that Haiyan is the result of climate change. Climate change is a big contributing factor to these events and it is becoming more intense. In North America, there is decreasing snowpack in the western mountains, in Latin America, there is= evidence of gradual replacement of tropical forest, and in Europe, the is an increase risk of inland flash floods. Children in developing countries like the Philippines are the hardest hit, despite of being the least responsible for causing climate change. Unless we begin to take this seriously, according to experts, climate related disasters could affect 375 million people every year by 2015, up from 263 million in 2010 (Ashdown, 2013).Typhoon Impact on Philippine Tourism According to reports, Philippine’s GDP of 5.9% came from the travel sector (Prisco, 2013). The impact of Typhoon Haiyan in the central and southern part of the Philippines will have a negative effect on the countries GDP resulting from Tourist not choosing the country as its choice of destination for vacation. Airports were massively destroyed by Typhoon Haiyan keeping most of the top destination reachable, including Boracay Island through Kalibo Airport and Caticlan Airport, Cebu through the Mactan International Airport, Bohol through the Tagbilaran Airport, Iloilo through the Iloilo and Bacolod Silay Airports, and Puerto Princesa, Palawan through the Puerto Princesa Airport (Prisco, 2013). Another problem that was caused by Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines is power outages and blackouts. To keep operations up and running, many hotels are running on gasoline generators, but fuel supplies may run low to no supply at all. There were situations that it takes days to get the next supplies so there were instances that hotels were just lighted using candles. Lack of power supply resulted to travel or booking cancellations.

II. Paradox Between Climate Change and Tourism气候变化与旅游业的悖论

Almost all tourists agree that good weather means good vacation. Many tourism activities takes place outdoor. Therefore, a good weather condition and clean environment are major factors for the success of any tourism destination. There are evidences that tourism development and climate change has complex interactions resulting from human actions(Xola Consulting, Inc., 2009).

1. Study shows that weather condition brought by global warning can cause destruction as result from massive flooding, huge typhoons, melting of snowcaps and disappearance of beaches or islands.
2. Whether it is short-term or long-term impacts, changes in the environment may reduce destination’s attractiveness such polluted waters, deforestation, melting glaciers, just to name a few.
3. Lifestyle changes brought about by changing seasons.
4. Induced impacts based on individual and public policies that has effects on warning but with increasing effects on tourism activity such as more energy-efficient technologies, product-diversifications that aims to prolong seasonality and reduce vulnerability. Climate change may lead to changes in climactic seasonality (Amelung, Nicholls, & Viner, 2007, p. 286). This means that many people are adjusting their holidays or schedules dependent on weather conditions. In study made by Amelung, Nicholls and Viner about the implication of climate change for global tourism with emphasis on seasonality, the report showed that within the next 30 years, the world might experience different patterns of seasonality due to climate change (p. 294). In this case, there will be placesthat are no longer viable as a tourist destination.
The Philippines is one of the countries that are vulnerable to climate change. According to PAGASA, an organization that studies natural disasters in the Philippines, analyzed climate trends from 1951 to 2009 (PAGASA, 2011). The key findings are summarized as follows:
1. There was an increase in the annual mean temperature by 0.57°C.
2. Minimum and maximum temperature range from 0.35°C to 0.94°C.
3. There was an increase of Typhoons that hit the Philippines with higher sustained winds to 150 kph and above.
4. The analysis of extreme temperatures and massive rainfalls indicate an increase in hot days and decrease of cold night.
According to the study made by Peeters, he concluded that tourism and travel sector contributes to the climate change more than it contributes to the global economy. Thus this sector is eco-inefficient with respect to global warming (2008, p. 7). He argues that tourism and travel sectors are highly dependent on energy transport and luxury accommodation that resulted to decreasing the eco-efficiency (p. 7)
The Philippines has made its contribution in environmental conservation and protection
but the efforts are not enough to solve treats to the environment and climate change. Land conversion and development with have taken its toll on the country’s forest, marine life and environment (Defense Language Institute of Foreign Language Center, 2011).

III. Examples of Destinations or Companies or Global目的地或公司或全球的例子

Organizations that are dealing with the climate change practices:
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO):Organization like World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and UN system are working to address the issue of climate change. This organization believe that global warming are caused by human activities that emit greenhouses gases that causes the earth’s temperature to rise between 1.8°C and 4°C by the end of this century (UNWTO, 2007).Davos Declaration was organized by World Tourism Organization to address the issue of global change (UNWTO, 2007, p. 2). In the conference in 2007, the participants have who represents 80 countries and 22 international organization; they agreed the following:
1. Climate is an important factor for Tourism but the same sector is also a big contributor of global CO2 emissions.
2. Tourism is a big contributor to global economy, a big contributor to UN Goals for sustainability and important part of society.
3. Tourism should adapt to policies that reflects a “quadruple bottom line” of environmental, social, economic, and climate responsiveness.
4. Tourism Sector must address climate change issues and help to reduce CO2 emissions.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):Another organization that was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). It consists of different scientist all over the world to assess the most scientific, technical and socio-economic information on climate change issues.
In the summary report prepared by IPCC for Policy makers (IPCC, 2013), they presented the following observations:
1. Earth’s surface is successively warmer and that the last 30 years was the warmest period of the last 1400 years.
2. Energy of the climate system mostly came from the Ocean warming.The scientists were certain that temperature of ocean is rising.
3. Cryosphere consists of glaciers and ice sheets have been loosing mass for the last two decades in Greenland and Antarctic.
4. Sea levels from 1901 to 2010 rose by an average of 0.19 meters.
5. There was an increase in CO2, methane and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere in an unprecedented proportion for the last 800,000 years.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC):
The organization has 21 members from countries in the Asia Pacific Region. Its mission is to support sustainable economic growth and prosperity for its members. APEC is accountable for its energy consumption estimated at 60% of what world consumes. As the region becomes more progressive and industrialized, its consumption will also increase. In this connection, the organization has the responsibility to contribute to climate change initiatives.
APEC has established working groups to meet its climate change goals.
1. The Energy Working Group is responsible for informing and advising energy policy makers, business community, and industry experts on issues relating to energy.
2. The Asia-Pacific Network for Energy Technology is responsible on  energy research.
3. The Energy Security Initiative is responsible in addressing the region’s energy supply. Global Environment Facility (GEF):
The Philippines has partnerships with Global Environment Facility. It consists of 183 countries from international institutions, civil society organizations (CSOs), and the private sector to address the issues relating to environment, one of their main focuses is climate change. GEF projects help developing countries and economies in transition. This projects are designed to meets the overall objective of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Global Environment Facility, 2013).
The GEF support projects in:
1. Reduction of greenhouse emissions
2. Climate change adaptation measures for developing countries
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR):The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is the Philippine’s driving force in pursuit of sustainable development for the protection, conservation and management of Philippine’s environment and natural resources. This department has created an external office called Climate Change Office and work with other national government agencies, non-government organizations and local government units on matters related to climate change (DENR, 2013).
Some of the programs of DENR’s Climate Change Office are as follows:
1. Adaptation and adaptation strategies of climate change in coastal areas.
2. Reduction of emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.
3. Philippine climate change adaptation project.
Philippines Climate Change Commission (CCC):
The Climate Change Commission (CCC) was established to implement national climate change strategy and the climate change action plan to adapt to climate change and reduce national greenhouse gas emissions efficiently and purposively (CCC, 2011). It is empowered to formulate strategic framework on climate change to serve as basic for program for management, development, and activities on climate change.
Climate Change Commission plans are divided to two ultimate outcomes:
1. Enhance adaptive capacities of communities, resilience of natural ecosystem and sustainability of built environment to climate change.
2. Successful transition towards climate-smart development.Society for Sustainable Tourism and Development, Inc. (SSTDI):With offices in the Philippines and Japan, a non-profit, non-government organization that provides training and capacity building for private and public sectors to attain sustainability. Its mission is to support green solutions and sustainable tourism. One of its projects is called the Boracay Initiative (SSTDI, 2013). The project is to promote sustainability in the Boracay Island, Philippines known to be one of the top destinations in the world. The strategy is to work with private and public sector for the following programs:
1. Sustainability, Capacity Building, Training, and Educational programs. This includes studies on water and waste management programs, renewable energies, disaster, and prevention management.
2. Zero Carbon Resorts. This project is to promote resorts and establishments within the island to switch from use of fossil fuel to renewable energy resources.
Station I –Boracay Island,Philippines Palawan Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD):
The organization work with the Philippine Government, the mission is to promote development, conservation, management, protection and utilization of the natural resources of Palawan for the present and future generations (PCSD, 2004).PCSD’s accomplishment in 2012 includes:
1. Research on climate change vulnerabilities in some islands of Palawan and policy formulation for sustainability and water use within the islands.
2. The council organizes seminars about environmental laws and trainings on climate change adaptation.
3. They established monitoring systems for resources in Palawan. It evaluates water quality, river systems, and coastal resources. The processes are conducted yearly to assess the stability of the resource and the ecosystem.
4. They have Green Benefit Monitoring and Evaluation System (GBMES) to monitor the benefits gained in the environmental investments. Hotels with Corporate Social Responsibility:Major Hotels in the Philippines has developed their own corporate social responsibility as part of their business activity. According to Weber, companies who participate on CSR activities will result to positive benefit such increased reputation and company image;enhance employee morale and loyalty (2008, pp. 258-259). Shangri-La Hotels and Resorts launched the “Bayanihan for the Philippines” campaign. This project aimed at supporting relief, rebuilding and rehabilitation operations for various villages in Daanbatayan, somewhere in Cebu, Central part of the Philippines, which were destroyed by the typhoon (Hotellier Middle East, 2013). Marriott International contributed $50,000 USD (more than 2 million Philippine Peso) to the Red Cross Typhoon Haiyan Appeal (Marriott News Center, 2013).

IV. Current practices by the tourism industry for the climate 目前的做法，旅游业的气候

change by using a SWOT analysis or criteria discussed in the class:The Philippines and its tourism industry practice in relation to climate change are the focus of the SWOT analysis.

Strengths:
1. The Philippines have created Climate Change Adaptation Policy Initiatives to address the issue of climate change. It aims to address the needs and the consequences of climate change not only in the tourism sector but also in agriculture, water resources and infrastructure services.
2. The Department of Tourism of the Philippines is working closely with World Tourism Organization and other various UN agencies on climate changes policies and projects.
3. Funds are available and given to the Philippines for its sustainable tourism programs and climate change projects. In addition to its national budget on climate change, UN through it agencies have awarded the Philippines millions of dollars for its climate change initiatives and cooperation. 

4. Non-government organizations like Society for Sustainable Tourism and Development, Inc. (SSTDI) and Palawan Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD) are working with different government agencies to address climate change issues and to preserve tourists top destinations in the Philippine like the Boracay and Palawan Islands.

5. Tourism promotion is one of the main agenda of the current Philippine Administration. With the efforts of Tourism Department, tourist arrivals grew by 11.8% to 3.18 million visitors for the first
8 months of 2013 (Tempo, 2013). The Philippines remains to be resilient against climate change. After devastation of Haiyan Typhoon, the Philippines beats GDP forecast to 7.2 percent in 2013 (Gatdula, 2013).
Weakness:
1. The aftermath of Haiyan Typhoon shows the inability of the Philippine Government to act fast to save thousands of people and properties. This has a direct and indirect impact on tourism.
2. Corruption practices of public and private sector, tourist and nontourist industry, are major problems to solve climate change issues especially in the developing countries like the Philippines.
3. Tourism related climate change initiative maybe slowed by poor infrastructure system.
4. Budget for tourism infrastructure and development is not sufficient to address the needs of the industry. When infrastructures are directly exposed to climate change, it can lead to depreciation and materials failure.
5. Lack of political will from the Philippine Government and lack of discipline from Travel and Hotel operators will result to unsustainable practices. This will affect the overall mission of the Philippine’s Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Climate Change Commission, and UN’s efforts on climate change and sustainability.
Opportunities:
1. The Gross value added (GVA) in Philippine tourism is expected to grow up to 1.15 trillion pesos (US$ 2.58B) in 2016 (Gatdula, 2013). The positive forecast will motivate government and all key stakeholders to address the climate change related issues.
2. More revenue means more employment. This can includes hiring experts and workers to study and address climate change issues and solutions. Based on Department of Tourism data, tourism’s employment for the year 2013 increased to 4.9 million from 4.2 million in 2012. This level is projected to rise at 5.4 million in 2014, 6.3 million in 2015 and 7.4 million in 2016 (Gatdula, 2013).
3. The Philippine tourism key stakeholders are adapting plans and development that are sustainable and sensitive to climate change initiatives. At this stage, there are plenty of opportunities to improve the plans that are important and effective to address the problems of climate change.
4. UN provides support in the development of climate change vulnerabilities and assessment. This is an opportunity that can be used by the Philippines to address it own climate change problems.
5. The Philippines CO2 emission in 2010 is 0.9 metric tons per capita up from 0.8 per capita in 2009. This is a change of 12.5% (World Bank, 2010). The contribution made by tourism to global emissions is estimated to be at 5%. Tourism stakeholders can work together with the government to address solutions from policy, operations and technological solutions to address CO2 emission problems.
Threats:
1. Although 500 climate related laws have been passed by 66 countries since 1997 (Markey, Gummer, & Frolick, 2014), there are climate change policies that are not yet approved or passed by government and international organizations. Without policies, it post treats to UN actions and goals.
2. Lack of implementation and lack of education especially on CO2 emission-reduction policies.
3. The Philippines experience an average of 20 Typhoons every year. Typhoon Haiyan could easily surpass economic losses amounting to US$ 14 Billion. The country is far from the recovery stage. Another strong typhoon could easily destroy the work that has been done. It can result to setbacks not just in the tourism industry but the entire Philippine economy.
4. Political instability can affect the Philippine Tourism and its efforts in climate change initiatives. Projects that are funded by the local and international organizations will be wasted if agenda of politicians are the stumbling blocks for its progress.
5. Typhoons and weather changes may result to increase in disease and deaths. The inability of the government to act fast will have a negative impact. Tourist operators will have difficulties to attract potential visitors. Tourist will go to other destinations because of fear.

V. Conclusion: 总结

Climate is an important aspect of Tourism. Climate change and weather patterns in tourist destinations can affect level of comfort, safety and decisions of tourist. Based on many studies and researches, the climate change that we are experiencing is human related activities like greenhouse carbon dioxide emissions. The impact of Typhoon Haiyan that killed thousands of people, displaced millions of families and destroyed many properties in tourist destination in the Philippines are evidences of pressing climate change challenges.

For the last twenty years the UN taking the lead together with its members, partners both public and private sectors have passed many policies but some of its policies are yet to be implemented in many countries. The Philippines has one of the best climate change laws in the world (Smith, 2012). It has Climate Change Act of 2009 and Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010. The problem is the implementation of the said policies. First problem is the political will to put change into action. Second, developing countries like the Philippines doesn’t have enough budgets to execute laws. Third, government is not giving enough incentives so that the private sector will be willing to participate in climate change initiatives.
The impact of climate change in tourism appears to be extensive and multi-dimensional subject that needs to get a great deal of attention due to its importance. Unless we begin to take it seriously, it will remain to be a great treat to tourism and millions of people will be at risk.

VI. Bibliography:注解

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