清嘉庆、道光时期政治危机研究
发布时间：2018-09-10 20:12
【摘要】：本文对清嘉庆、道光时期政治危机的表象、原因及其性质进行初步探讨。时间从1796年嘉庆继位开始,到1850年道光去世为止,大约半个世纪。论文所说的“政治危机”,是指一个国家政权的统治者无法照旧统治下去,民众无法照旧生活下去的统治危机。 嘉庆、道光时期政治危机的表象主要表现在四个方面。第一是吏治危机,吏治危机又突出表现在官场道德危机和官场人才危机两个方面。就官场道德危机来讲,此时作为封建官员所必须遵循的为官从政的行为准则,即仁政爱民、忠君爱国、廉洁奉公、公明勤俭,并不为大多数官员所遵守,这集中表现在官场全面的贪污腐化,酷烈虐民,欺骗蒙蔽,消极怠工,漠视民生。就官场人才危机来讲,此时时逢衰世,皇权专制主义和为皇权专制主义服务的传统道德进一步暴露出它的落后性和腐朽性,严重地抑制和扼杀了大批有创造力的人才,而在官场得志的是一批奴才、庸才甚至贪才。第二是社会危机,社会危机又主要表现在三个方面: 一是大量的流民游民饥民群;二是大量的宗教秘密结社;三是连续不断的农民暴动。而这三者又相互作用,相互影响,始终联系在一起。成千上万的流民游民饥民,流离失所,生活赤贫,以各种方式和手段求生存,打乱了社会的正常秩序,造成了社会的急剧动荡;秘密结社从整体上看,对社会稳定构成威胁和破坏。而农民暴动更是一种动摇封建统治根基的社会危机和政治危机。第三是民族危机。民族危机主要表现是满族与汉族之间的矛盾和中华民族与外国侵略者之间的冲突。就官场来讲,满清所采取的崇满抑汉的民族歧视政策,导致了国家行政效率的极端低下,各级官员的极端不负责任,对堆积如山的社会问题视而不见,对百姓疾苦的极其冷漠。这使整个大清帝国的行政运转失灵,这种失灵对于一个大国来说是致命的,是很严重的政治危机。至于中华民族与西方列强的冲突,乃至战争,不是简单地表现为清政府的失败,西方国家的胜利。这种失败给中国带来了许多社会和政治问题,比如鸦片问题,经济问题,外交问题,国内阶级矛盾问题以及国家主权问题等等。清政府的统治及其政权的合法性发生了动摇,这时的民族危机实际上是一种政治危机。第四是政改失败,面对政治危机,作为清王朝的总代表和象征的嘉庆、道光皇帝,也想进行一些改革,企图挽救末世的命运。但此时大势已去,内忧外患,已无回天之力,清王朝已经处于风雨飘摇之中。而这四个方面又相互影响,相互作用,相互转化,从而使此时的政治危机更加严重。嘉庆、道光时期政治危机的原因十分复杂,本论文从五个方面进行了分析。 一是分析了乾隆后期乾隆皇帝给他儿子嘉庆皇帝留下了一个政治烂摊子,即吏治腐败,社会动荡,国库亏空,思想禁锢,清代由盛转衰。二是嘉庆、道光因循守成的指导思想。由于嘉庆、道光皇帝对于先皇所取得的政绩过于拔高而缺乏超越的底气和自信,又深受传统思想的消极影响,特别是深居宫中,不懂社会民生,更不懂治国之道,尤其昧于国内大势和世界大势,而一味地因循守旧,这是导致嘉庆、道光时期政治危机的思想根源。三是不合时宜的治国方略。嘉庆、道光治国的指导思想决定了他们的治国方略,概括起来主要是四点,即:放任自流的人口政策,重本抑末的经济方略,道德万能的治国方略,闭关锁国方略。在治国方略方面,嘉道并无创新,完全是因循传统。由于嘉道时期的中国和世界已经发生了重大变化,“宗其常而不知其变”的嘉道治国方略已经不合时宜,难以满足国家经济社会发展以及政治稳定的需要,甚至引发一些新的矛盾和危机。不合时宜的治国方略,是导致嘉庆、道光时期政治危机的战略原因。四是封建制度与政治危机。这里主要分析了八个方面,即:道德禁欲主义,低俸制度,陋规制度,捐纳制度,崇满抑汉制度,君主专制制度,清代科举制度,以及文字狱暴政。这里主要分析一些封建制度与清嘉庆、道光时期政治危机的密切关系,其中主要分析了封建制度抑制和扼杀人才,是导致嘉庆、道光时期政治危机的制度原因。五是从世界格局中看清嘉庆、道光时期的政治危机,这是从当时中西方的对比中来分析清嘉庆、道光时期的政治危机。这里从四个方面进行了阐述,即:西方民主思想的兴起与中国的万马齐喑,西方民主制度的建立与中国专制的强化,工业化运动与扼杀工商业的政策,西方科学技术的全面繁荣与中国统治者视科技为奇技淫巧。这时的西方国家与清王朝不是一个历史发展阶段的国家,其差距已整整是一个历史时代:一个是传统的农业经济社会,一个是工业化社会;一个是腐朽的君主专制制度的国家,一个是现代民主制度的国家;一个是视人民如草芥,漠视民生的国家,一个是重人权、自由平等的国家;一个是以君权为基础的人治国家,一个是以人权为基础的法治国家;一个是视科学技术为奇技淫巧,扼杀压制科学技术的国家,一个是科学技术大发展大繁荣的国家;一个是重农抑末、对工商业打击不遗余力的国家,一个是大力鼓励发展工商业的国家;一个是闭关锁国的国家,一个是积极扩大开放,扩展国际贸易的国家;一个是腐败无能,平庸昏聩的官僚政治的国家,一个是精明能干、有进取心、有国际视野、有远见的领导治理的国家。通过更广阔的时空比较分析,能更清楚地认识到清嘉庆、道光时期政治危机的深层次原因。 嘉庆、道光时期的政治危机既是封建王朝末世危机,也是中国封建专制制度性危机,还是历史转型期的危机。就封建王朝末世危机来讲,这时清王朝正常的政治功能趋于丧失,而且危机不可自救。这主要表现在清嘉道政治体系已经不能吸收社会精英,国家政策输出和信息输入基本受阻,国家整合社会的效能极低,以及统治者救弊无方和阶级矛盾不可调和。嘉庆、道光时期的王朝末世危机特征,比以往任何王朝都更明显,危机的程度更深,这是因为,它不只是封建王朝的末世危机,也是封建专制制度的制度性危机。就封建专制制度性危机来讲,它危害最烈的是制造了一批无思想、无主见、无担当的奴才,严重制约王朝的决策和执行效率,造成了中国封建政治体制的封闭、板结和僵硬。这使得封建王朝无法在遭遇危机时,通过自身的力量进行和平式的自我调节和自我修复,反而必须借助暴力改朝换代。这种制度不仅不利于每一个人作用的发挥,而且在根本上将中国置于治乱兴衰的恶性循环之中。中国封建专制制度已成了嘉道时期统治危机的根源。只改朝换代,而不改变封建专制制度,嘉道危机就难以得到根本解决。由于嘉道时期的社会政治危机并非简单的王朝末世危机,它还是封建专制制度性危机,所以危机的解决不能走王朝循环的老路,而需要进行政治社会制度的深刻变革。由于这时中国国内外的形势发生了全面而深刻的变化,嘉庆、道光时期的政治危机,故又是中国历史转型期的政治危机。历史转型期的政治危机有两重含义:一是中国历史从封建国家进入了半殖民地半封建国家阶段;二是此时的中国封建专制制度开始动摇,落后的农业经济,落后的科学技术,落后的思想文化,以及落后腐朽的君主专制制度,都不能照旧运转下去,而须改弦更张。受到西方列强的入侵,君权政治开始向民权政治转型,虽然60年后的1911年辛亥革命才推翻帝制,建立民国,但毕竟出现了历史的转机,中国几千年的专制统治的漫漫长夜中出现了一线曙光。
[Abstract]:This paper makes a preliminary study of the appearance, causes and nature of the political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang in the Qing Dynasty, which lasted about half a century from the beginning of Jiaqing's succession in 1796 to the death of Daoguang in 1850. The ruling crisis.
In Jiaqing, the appearance of the political crisis in the Daoguang period is mainly manifested in four aspects. The first is the crisis of the bureaucracy. The crisis of the bureaucracy is also manifested in two aspects: the crisis of the official morality and the crisis of the official talents. Integrity, honesty, diligence and thrift are not observed by the majority of officials, which are mainly manifested in the overall corruption of the officialdom, cruel abuse of the people, deception, passive slack, ignorance of people's livelihood. Sexuality and decadence severely inhibit and stifle a large number of creative talents, while in the officialdom, a group of slaves, mediocre talents and even greedy talents win. The second is the social crisis, which is mainly manifested in three aspects:
One is a large number of vagrants hungry people; the other is a large number of religious secret associations; the third is a continuous peasant riots. And the three interact, influence each other, always linked. Thousands of vagrants hungry, displaced, living in extreme poverty, in various ways and means to survive, disrupting the normal order of society, resulting in The peasant uprising is a social and political crisis that shakes the foundation of feudal rule. The third is the national crisis. The national crisis is mainly manifested by the contradiction between Manchu and Han and the conflict between Chinese and foreign aggressors. As far as officialdom is concerned, the policy of national discrimination adopted by the Manchu Dynasty, which advocated the suppression of Han Dynasty, led to the extremely low efficiency of state administration, the extreme irresponsibility of officials at all levels, the ignorance of mountainous social problems, and the extreme indifference to the sufferings of the people. As for the conflicts between the Chinese nation and the Western powers and even the wars, they are not simply manifested as the failure of the Qing government and the victory of the western countries. The rule of the Qing government and the legitimacy of its regime were shaken. The national crisis was actually a political crisis. Fourthly, the failure of the political reform. In the face of the political crisis, as the general representative and symbol of the Qing Dynasty, Emperor Daoguang also wanted to carry out some reforms in an attempt to save the fate of the last generation. The Qing Dynasty was in the midst of ups and downs, and these four aspects interacted with each other, interacted and transformed each other, thus making the political crisis more serious at this time.
One is the analysis of a political mess left by Emperor Qianlong in the late Qianlong period to his son, Emperor Jiaqing, that is, corruption of the officials, social unrest, Treasury deficit, ideological imprisonment, the Qing Dynasty from prosperity to decline. It is the ideological root of the political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang. Third, it is an inappropriate strategy to govern the country. The guiding ideology determines their strategy of governing the country, which can be summarized into four main points: the population policy of indulgence, the economic strategy of stressing the root and restraining the end, the strategy of governing the country with moral omnipotence, and the strategy of blocking the country. The change of Jia-Dao's strategy of governing the country is out of date. It is difficult to meet the needs of the country's economic and social development and political stability, and even causes some new contradictions and crises. This paper mainly analyzes eight aspects: moral asceticism, low salary system, bad rules system, donation system, the system of admiration and suppression of Han Dynasty, the system of monarchy, the system of imperial examination in Qing Dynasty, and the tyranny of literary prison. Fifthly, the political crisis in the period of Qing and Daoguang is seen from the world pattern. This is to analyze the political crisis in the period of Qing, Jiaqing and Daoguang from the contrast between China and the West. This paper expounds from four aspects, namely, the rise of Western democratic thought and the political crisis in the period of Daoguang. The establishment of Western democracy and the strengthening of Chinese autocracy, the industrialization movement and the policy of strangling industry and commerce, the overall prosperity of Western science and technology and the Chinese rulers regarded science and technology as a miracle and a lewd skill. At that time, the western countries and the Qing Dynasty were not countries in a historical stage of development, and the gap between them was a whole history. Times: one is a traditional agricultural economic society, one is an industrialized society; one is a decadent autocratic monarchy of the country, one is a modern democratic system of the country; one is to regard the people as mustard, disregard the people's livelihood of the country, one is to attach importance to human rights, freedom and equality of the country; one is based on the monarchy of the rule of man, one is based on. A country ruled by law on the basis of human rights; a country that regards science and technology as exotic and skillful, strangling and suppressing science and technology; a country that attaches great importance to agriculture and restrains the end of the world; a country that vigorously encourages the development of industry and commerce; a country that is closed to the outside world; and a country that is prosperous. It is a country that actively expands its opening up and expands international trade; a country with corrupt and incompetent, mediocre and dull bureaucracy; a country with smart, enterprising, international vision and far-sighted leadership and governance. Through a broader space-time comparative analysis, we can more clearly understand the deep-seated political crisis in Qing, Jiaqing and Daoguang periods. The second reason.
In Jiaqing, the political crisis in the Daoguang period was not only the crisis of the end of the feudal dynasty, but also the crisis of the Chinese feudal autocracy, or the crisis of the historical transition. Jiaqing, the Daoguang Dynasty's characteristics of the end-of-life crisis are more obvious than any other dynasty in the past, the degree of crisis is deeper, because it is not only the end of the feudal dynasty. The world crisis is also the institutional crisis of the feudal autocratic system.As far as the feudal autocratic institutional crisis is concerned, the most serious harm is to create a group of ideological, independent and unaffected slaves, which seriously restricts the efficiency of the dynasty's decision-making and execution, resulting in the closure, rigidity and rigidity of the Chinese feudal political system.This makes the feudal Dynasty impossible to exist. In times of crisis, peaceful self-regulation and self-repair through one's own strength must be carried out by means of violence instead. This system is not only unfavorable to the role of everyone, but also puts China in a vicious circle of ups and downs. China's feudal autocracy has become a ruling crisis in the Jiadao period. Because the social and political crisis of Jiadao period is not a simple crisis of the last dynasty, it is also a crisis of the feudal autocratic system, so the solution of the crisis can not follow the old road of Dynasty cycle, but needs a deep political and social system. The political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang is also a political crisis in the period of China's historical transformation. The political crisis in the period of historical transformation has two meanings: first, China's history has entered the stage of semi-colonial and semi-feudal state from the feudal state; second, at this time. China's feudal autocratic system began to shake, backward agricultural economy, backward science and technology, backward ideology and culture, as well as backward and decadent monarchy system, can not continue to run, but must be changed. The overthrow of the imperial system and the establishment of the Republic of China, but after all, a turning point in history, China's autocratic rule for thousands of years in the long night of a glimmer of light.
【学位授予单位】：湖南大学
【学位级别】：博士
【学位授予年份】：2011
【分类号】：K249.3
本文编号：2235493
[Abstract]:This paper makes a preliminary study of the appearance, causes and nature of the political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang in the Qing Dynasty, which lasted about half a century from the beginning of Jiaqing's succession in 1796 to the death of Daoguang in 1850. The ruling crisis.
In Jiaqing, the appearance of the political crisis in the Daoguang period is mainly manifested in four aspects. The first is the crisis of the bureaucracy. The crisis of the bureaucracy is also manifested in two aspects: the crisis of the official morality and the crisis of the official talents. Integrity, honesty, diligence and thrift are not observed by the majority of officials, which are mainly manifested in the overall corruption of the officialdom, cruel abuse of the people, deception, passive slack, ignorance of people's livelihood. Sexuality and decadence severely inhibit and stifle a large number of creative talents, while in the officialdom, a group of slaves, mediocre talents and even greedy talents win. The second is the social crisis, which is mainly manifested in three aspects:
One is a large number of vagrants hungry people; the other is a large number of religious secret associations; the third is a continuous peasant riots. And the three interact, influence each other, always linked. Thousands of vagrants hungry, displaced, living in extreme poverty, in various ways and means to survive, disrupting the normal order of society, resulting in The peasant uprising is a social and political crisis that shakes the foundation of feudal rule. The third is the national crisis. The national crisis is mainly manifested by the contradiction between Manchu and Han and the conflict between Chinese and foreign aggressors. As far as officialdom is concerned, the policy of national discrimination adopted by the Manchu Dynasty, which advocated the suppression of Han Dynasty, led to the extremely low efficiency of state administration, the extreme irresponsibility of officials at all levels, the ignorance of mountainous social problems, and the extreme indifference to the sufferings of the people. As for the conflicts between the Chinese nation and the Western powers and even the wars, they are not simply manifested as the failure of the Qing government and the victory of the western countries. The rule of the Qing government and the legitimacy of its regime were shaken. The national crisis was actually a political crisis. Fourthly, the failure of the political reform. In the face of the political crisis, as the general representative and symbol of the Qing Dynasty, Emperor Daoguang also wanted to carry out some reforms in an attempt to save the fate of the last generation. The Qing Dynasty was in the midst of ups and downs, and these four aspects interacted with each other, interacted and transformed each other, thus making the political crisis more serious at this time.
One is the analysis of a political mess left by Emperor Qianlong in the late Qianlong period to his son, Emperor Jiaqing, that is, corruption of the officials, social unrest, Treasury deficit, ideological imprisonment, the Qing Dynasty from prosperity to decline. It is the ideological root of the political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang. Third, it is an inappropriate strategy to govern the country. The guiding ideology determines their strategy of governing the country, which can be summarized into four main points: the population policy of indulgence, the economic strategy of stressing the root and restraining the end, the strategy of governing the country with moral omnipotence, and the strategy of blocking the country. The change of Jia-Dao's strategy of governing the country is out of date. It is difficult to meet the needs of the country's economic and social development and political stability, and even causes some new contradictions and crises. This paper mainly analyzes eight aspects: moral asceticism, low salary system, bad rules system, donation system, the system of admiration and suppression of Han Dynasty, the system of monarchy, the system of imperial examination in Qing Dynasty, and the tyranny of literary prison. Fifthly, the political crisis in the period of Qing and Daoguang is seen from the world pattern. This is to analyze the political crisis in the period of Qing, Jiaqing and Daoguang from the contrast between China and the West. This paper expounds from four aspects, namely, the rise of Western democratic thought and the political crisis in the period of Daoguang. The establishment of Western democracy and the strengthening of Chinese autocracy, the industrialization movement and the policy of strangling industry and commerce, the overall prosperity of Western science and technology and the Chinese rulers regarded science and technology as a miracle and a lewd skill. At that time, the western countries and the Qing Dynasty were not countries in a historical stage of development, and the gap between them was a whole history. Times: one is a traditional agricultural economic society, one is an industrialized society; one is a decadent autocratic monarchy of the country, one is a modern democratic system of the country; one is to regard the people as mustard, disregard the people's livelihood of the country, one is to attach importance to human rights, freedom and equality of the country; one is based on the monarchy of the rule of man, one is based on. A country ruled by law on the basis of human rights; a country that regards science and technology as exotic and skillful, strangling and suppressing science and technology; a country that attaches great importance to agriculture and restrains the end of the world; a country that vigorously encourages the development of industry and commerce; a country that is closed to the outside world; and a country that is prosperous. It is a country that actively expands its opening up and expands international trade; a country with corrupt and incompetent, mediocre and dull bureaucracy; a country with smart, enterprising, international vision and far-sighted leadership and governance. Through a broader space-time comparative analysis, we can more clearly understand the deep-seated political crisis in Qing, Jiaqing and Daoguang periods. The second reason.
In Jiaqing, the political crisis in the Daoguang period was not only the crisis of the end of the feudal dynasty, but also the crisis of the Chinese feudal autocracy, or the crisis of the historical transition. Jiaqing, the Daoguang Dynasty's characteristics of the end-of-life crisis are more obvious than any other dynasty in the past, the degree of crisis is deeper, because it is not only the end of the feudal dynasty. The world crisis is also the institutional crisis of the feudal autocratic system.As far as the feudal autocratic institutional crisis is concerned, the most serious harm is to create a group of ideological, independent and unaffected slaves, which seriously restricts the efficiency of the dynasty's decision-making and execution, resulting in the closure, rigidity and rigidity of the Chinese feudal political system.This makes the feudal Dynasty impossible to exist. In times of crisis, peaceful self-regulation and self-repair through one's own strength must be carried out by means of violence instead. This system is not only unfavorable to the role of everyone, but also puts China in a vicious circle of ups and downs. China's feudal autocracy has become a ruling crisis in the Jiadao period. Because the social and political crisis of Jiadao period is not a simple crisis of the last dynasty, it is also a crisis of the feudal autocratic system, so the solution of the crisis can not follow the old road of Dynasty cycle, but needs a deep political and social system. The political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang is also a political crisis in the period of China's historical transformation. The political crisis in the period of historical transformation has two meanings: first, China's history has entered the stage of semi-colonial and semi-feudal state from the feudal state; second, at this time. China's feudal autocratic system began to shake, backward agricultural economy, backward science and technology, backward ideology and culture, as well as backward and decadent monarchy system, can not continue to run, but must be changed. The overthrow of the imperial system and the establishment of the Republic of China, but after all, a turning point in history, China's autocratic rule for thousands of years in the long night of a glimmer of light.
【学位授予单位】：湖南大学
【学位级别】：博士
【学位授予年份】：2011
【分类号】：K249.3
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