留学生essay代写|南美洲私有化

本文的目的是认识到发展中国家的私有化的影响，对经济的影响和如何私有化效益的部门。首先，我要从广泛的讨论，以缩小以下主题。一个总体思路是什么是南美洲和什么国家属于这个大陆。下一步是谈论他们的经济。更狭隘和具体的，我要掩盖什么政治或经济问题，导致他们私有化。第二，我要提出两个在智利和玻利维亚这样的国家的私有化的最大的例子。第三，从我的角度来看，在这个国家的私有化的例子和一些解决方案的优点和缺点，从我的角度来看。
南美国是四大洲之一，是西半球南部的两大洲。这是政治上的分割成12个独立的国家，如委内瑞拉，厄瓜多尔，智利，玻利维亚，哥伦比亚，乌拉圭，秘鲁，阿根廷，苏里南，巴西，，巴拉圭，圭亚那。

The purpose of this paper is to recognize the impact of privatization in developing countries, how it affects the economy and how the privatization benefices the sector. First of all, I am going to discuss from broad to narrow the following topics. To being with, a general idea of what is South America and what countries belong to this continent. The next step is to talk about their economy. Going more narrow and specific I am going to cover what political or economic issues led them to privatization. Secondly, I am going to present two of the biggest examples of privatization in countries such as Bolivia and Chile. Third, the advantages and disadvantages the examples of privatization in this countries concluding with the measures and some solutions from my point of view.

South America is one of the fourth largest continents, is the southern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. It is divided politically into 12 independent countries such as Venezuela, Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia, Colombia, Uruguay, Peru, Argentina, Suriname, Brazil, Paraguay, and Guyana. All this countries together is what conforms what we call South America as well as the overseas department of French Guiana. The continent is divided into three sections-the South American cordillera, the interior lowlands, and the continental shield. (South America Maps and Online Resources)

According to the world atlas, "the continent contains the world's highest waterfall. Angel galls in Venezuela; the largest river (by volume), the Amazon river; the longest mountain range, the Andes, and the driest place on earth, the Atacama Desert in Chile.

In addition, it includes the largest rainforest, the Amazon rainforest; the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations in the Antarctica, the worlds southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro, Chile.

According to the Atlas Info, "During the first decade of the 21st century, South American Governments have drifted to the political left, with socialist being elected in Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. Despite the move to the left, South America for the most part still embraces free market policies, and it is taking an active path toward greater continental integration"

Recently, an intergovernmental entity has been formed which aims to merge the two existing customs unions: Mercosur and the Andean Community, thus forming the third largest trade bloc in the world. This new political organization known as Union of South American nations seeks to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination of tariffs.

Economy in South America 南美洲经济

In general, Since the 1990s, South America has experienced great economic development, with Venezuela, Colombia, Argentina, Uruguay and Peru growing their economies by over 8% per annum. Brazil's economy, on the other hand, is expected to grow by a more sluggish pace in the near future.[1]

South America relies a great deal on exporting goods. On an exchange tariff basis Brazil is the seventh largest economy in the world, which is excellent to be country from South America. Brazil is also; the second largest in the Americas guides the way in total amount of exportations at the amount of $137.8 billion dollars followed by Chile, which has $58.12 billion, and last but not least Argentina with $46.46 billion.

According to the Economy Watch Author and the CIA World Factbook:

Argentina: Argentina is set to experience unprecedented growth in the energy and agribusiness sectors. The financial equation in Argentina could change due to potential funding needs from the public sector. However, some institutional changes and increasing disputes between the government and the business sector could derail the Argentine state of economy and investments in the short term.

Brazil: Brazil's economy is growing steadily with activities in the energy sectors, and surge in mergers and acquisitions. Being the largest economy in the region, investments are picking up, and the oil and gas sectors are expected to be the largest beneficiaries. However, much of the economic development is subject to approval of some key bills in the Senate.

Chile: Chile's economy has remained quite stable despite the recession. The economy is set for a boost in 2010 with growth in renewable energy opportunities.

Colombia: Colombia's economy is known to encourage free markets and private participation. Being a key foreign investment destination for the US, 2010 promises to augur well for the approval of the US - Colombia Free Trade Agreement by the US Congress.

Peru: Peru expects strong economic growth in 2010 due to its reputation of being one of the most sustainable economies in the Latin American region. Peru's banking system is one of the most robust ones in the world.

This figure represents the annual economic growth within the countries that conforms what is South America. Peru for example, has tried over the years to combat corruption while sustaining the economic growth.

Argentina's historically and over the years have had a high economic growth alternated with severe recessions, even this is an upper middle income country it has manage really well to maintaining this growth

Privatization is mainly the procedure in transferring ownership of a business, public entity, agency or enterprise from the public sector which is the government of any country to the private sector that could be any company that wants to take over. There are for types of privatization such as share issue privatization, asset sale privatization, voucher privatization and privatization from below. In South America the most common type of privatization is the assets sale which the government or public sector sells the entire organization or part of it.

The main reason why countries of South America and more developing countries in the world start privatization is because hard economic situations and those have driven these countries to privatization. In addition, "Serious budget deficits, high foreign debt, and high dependence on international agencies such as the world bank and IMF are what make public entities sell all their ownership. (Clarke and Pitelis 1993)

From my perspective privatization occurs for two main motives, first to help the economy making the institution that has being privatized with more power or is to protect the costumer in order to have a quality service. According the author of Economia, Mackenzie and Mookherjee "Privatization of infrastructure can have a direct impact on consumers by altering their acces to the network, the price they pay for the service, and the quality of the service received". "Privatization may also have indirect consumer effects if it causes changes in the prices of substitudes goods". The author of the book describes the data to examine the consumer impact; also the details the impact of the privatization on access, price, and quality; and finally calculates the value of the cost of these changes for consumers and the resulting consequences for poverty and inequality.

In other words, poverty and inequality is one of the social and political issues that countries in south America suffer privatization most of the time is one of the solutions for the benefit of the population if is been well privatized and is not done with corruption intentions like some countries such as the Dominican Republic.

In the data the author analyzes four countries such as Argentina, Bolivia, Mexico, and Nicaragua in the same criteria of water, electricity and telephone. This table explains the consumer impact in the urban areas of these utilities privatized. In the case of these countries the expectation after the privatization is an improvement of the service.

"Privatization carries many potential public benefits beyond the private of access to water, electricity, and telephones" (Mackenzie and Mookherjee). In other point of view, the price of any service depends on how many people have them too, and in the case of communications it depends in how many people is connected to the service. When the company privatized or wants to go bigger to improve the system it benefices the all the existing users as well as the new users.

In the other hand, when services as important as water the public has to be more cautious to protect the health in the population. For instance, "In Argentina, Galiani, Gerler, and Schargrodsky find that child mortality fell by 5 to 9 percent in areas that privatized water, owing to a reduction in infectious and parasitic diseases". (Mackenzie and Mookherjee). Since this evaluation in a long term is so difficult to do, one of the solutions is create an evaluation reflecting the impact of the privatization on the consumer.

In addition, most societies in South America are against privatization because there is an automatic common perception that if the public sector is privatizing a service or a company prices are going to rise and is not going to be accessible to all the social class and more to the lower class. According to the author of the book Economica, the only way that the public enterprise may raise prices is if there are making a loss and the private owner has to raise the prices to cover the cost.

In the following table we can comprehend the changes in prices after these services have been privatized to the private sector. We can see in this table that the prices before was an average before being privatized and after that the prices started to rise little by little.

Bolivia: Water Privatization 玻利维亚：水私有化

Bolivia is the poorest country in the whole South America. In the same way Bolivia has been the country with the most controversy at the time the public sector was privatizing water. In the area of Cochabamba a company owned by the United States acquired a long term contract to manage and distribute water in the region. Before that the water system of all the poorest regions of Bolivia was been sell to the private sector to private investors.

The main reason Bolivia moved to the privatization was to push the country to economic and political changes away from government entities. Having as a benefit free market systems in order to a better economic growth, that at the end will be for the benefit of all the population in Bolivia. One of the promises of the government was to extent water and distributed to the areas where there is water scarcity. Therefore, all the cost for all the improvements in the service and more add on where passed on to the costumers that can afford it. Sometimes doubling the price of the service helps subsidize the service for people that are not able to pay such right rates, or even for people that doesn't have the access to it, perhaps for reasons such as unemployment, low income or even living in poor areas where there is water scarcity.

Afterward, later in 2000 students, street vendors and more individuals realized that the water distribution was being run by company, and prices were rising. It was a massive protest in all the streets of Bolivia causing violence.

After this protest the water system distribution was back to the public sector, and then Suez Company acquired the contract and over the years the people have done the same mechanism while the prices were rising. After that happen several time, that action had a name it was been denominated as "consumer rebellion" in contradiction of the water privatization. People who proposed the water privatization supposed that the government was unable to efficiently manage the treatment, the distribution or the investment of the water.

Finally, what Bolivia did after all this rebellion was to subsidize the water for poorer populations, they gave special vouchers programs to assure that people that weren't available to afford them get access to it.

In the case of Bolivia in general privatization made a negative impact because Bolivia is the poorest country in South America, and the poor people is the main concern to the government since is the part of the population that predominates.

In the figure 3, we can perceive that water in Buenos Aires lowered. Water was successful in La Paz and El Alto occasioned in water prices increasing less than in a different places in Bolivia. According to Mckenzie and Mookherjee "In Aguas de Tunari for the city of Cochabamba in 1999 resulted in tariffs increasing by an average of 43 percent for poor consumers, with some consumers experiencing a more than doubling of their bills."

In the other hand, Comparing Bolivia to Dominican Republic the electricity was completely owned by the government, this service has been used as a political instrument until 1999, after that the government authorized to be divided into 5 different private sectors, but they still owned actions in the electric system. After electricity was privatized they came with a similar solution as Bolivia did, Dominican Republic encourage everyone to pay the bill, because there's a huge loss because people don't pay the electrical service. They came up with the idea that if everyone in your sector pays the service you will have service 24/7 and for the people that cannot afford it they will subsidy it for them.

This new solution has fixed the electricity problem in the country because before when nobody used to pay they will less electricity in the country, and that led to delinquency. For example, in poor sectors the electricity will be gone for 2 days, and in the nights thieves will take advantage and steal, kill and a number of different situations. In this case, privatization made a positive impact because privatization wouldn't take place nobody would have electricity in their household because if you didn't pay the government their solution is give less and less electricity to the whole country. The quality of the service have increased tremendously, the prices are the same or diminutive more but Dominicans are receiving 24/7 electricity for almost the same price which made a huge impact in economy and social life.

I individually consider that water privatization is better than government run public utilities in developing countries around the world, because is a basic need. Humans can't live without water and everyone deserves to have no matter their social class.

Privatization in Chile: Social Security 私有化在智利的社会保障

Chile was the first country in South America to used privatization. Chile started the process in the 1970; they started replacing all the private ownership of the means of production. According to Kritzer in the article "The Chilean Experience" she explains that in 1981 Chile became the first country to privatize their retirement system. The government changed the old system which is the one that most countries have to the new one without any protest by the population. This new system was an improvement on failing the so called pay as you go arrangement.

After the system was already settle employees that were still in the old system had the option to change to change to the new system. People that were moved from the old to the new were giving credit, and those that did not want to change could stay in the old system.

On the new system everyone that had a job would contribute 10% of their monthly earnings to a retirement account. If they wanted to contribute more than the 10% is acceptable. Employees would have the option to chosse themselves out of a list of accredited invesment companies that the government approved. Also, the workers would have the choice to change companies whenever they like to, these creates competition within the investment companies.

The age for retirement is 65 for men and 60 for women, and is still the same age currently. Work after this age is not required and also it doesn't increase their retirement nor have keep giving the 10% monthly from their salary. This new system helps the economy, increases wealth and a better quality of life within the social classes. In addition, the citizen has the decision to retire whenever if agrees with the retirement at that age.

The Benefits of the privatization of the social security is that any citizen is in power of their future, and the biggest fear of most of the habitants of different countries is that this money is in hands of the government. According to the author, the economy has doubled in a positive way after the new system. This type of privatization has an important impact on people because motives them to work everyday for their future, there would be less unemployment and less poor people. I belive that with this privatization in any country in the world after a decade or two the people will start to move from social class to another social class from the lower class to the wealthy individuals.

Several countries in adding the U.S. are having the same problematic with support theirretirement program as Chile in 1970's and have been exploring Chile's new program. China's government has gone to Chile to learn about change of system of their pension program. The success of Chile's new system program had led Argentina, Peru, Uruguay, Mexico, and Colombia to privatized their retirement programs that was done near the 1990's.

"Is Privatization Necessary"

"The answer is a decided "yes." Privatization is necessary, and not simply to improve the performance of public enterprises-though the evidence is striking that it can and does improve performance. Privatization's essential contributions are to "lock in the gains" achieved earlier in reforming public ownership or in preparing a firm for sale, to distance the firm from the political process, and to inoculate it against the recurrence of the common and deadly ailment of public enterprises: interference by owners who have more than profit on their minds" (John Nellis, 1994).

All this policies in privatization has been tried and tested. It has been proved that helps immensely the economy of any country and with that there are several factors that help the country grow. For instance, generates jobs, economy increases, less political risk, and more control of the society in general. Citizens from other countries worry that their retirement to be in hands of politics because we don't know what can happen with political risk.