苏联在二战中发挥的作用

在本文中，我主要讨论二战和苏联的话题。苏联在战争中的作用是一个有趣的研究点，因为这个国家以不安的方式从强大的西欧国家的敌人变成了他们的盟友。苏联形象的转型不仅体现在国际关系的层面上，而且体现在苏联以外的日常生活中。

考虑到英国广播公司把二战和苏联问题的研究放到国际关系里面。在我的研究的论文中这一领域和时间的两个主要角色都发生了。他们是苏联，因为我专注于苏联在战争中的参与，英国广播公司是英国的信息公司，，这意味着英国广播公司所报道的内容总是以英国为中心的。

为了使这项研究从国际关系的角度研究苏联在二战中的作用，我提出了这些研究问题：
在战争年代（例如英国广播公司），苏联在英国国内的媒体市场的发展是什么？

In this paper I focused on topic of WWII and the USSR. The development of the USSR role during the war is an interesting point for the research as this state passed uneasy way from enemy of powerful Western European states to their ally. The transformation of the USSR image was reflected not only on the level of international relations, but also in the everyday life of people outside the Soviet Union.
Considering the BBC archive on WWII and the USSR issue put the research inside the domain of international relations. In focus of my research paper two main actors of this sphere and time occurred. They are the USSR, as I concentrate on the Soviet Union participation in the war, and the United Kingdom, as the BBC is the British informational corporation that means the BBC attention is always put Britain in the centre of the content.
For making this research on topic of the USSR role in WWII from the viewpoint of international relations I raised these research questions:
What was the evolution of the Soviet Union representation in the domestic British media market during the war years (exemplified by BBC)?
How did British government control communism propaganda glorifying communist state (exemplified by BBC)?
The research was made on the basis of the BBC archive materials dated July 1940 - May 1945. This research was focused on internal British media space only.
In this research Great Britain takes a special place as materials used for its writing were taken from British archives. This fact puts this country more or less on top position in this paper as directly or indirectly everything described here has relation to Britain.
Great Britain participated in WWII from its very beginning (on 3 September 1939 the UK declared war). The role of this country during the war years as its image in history during this period was clear in some way. It wasn't the same in the case of the Soviet Union that changed his Nazi ally status to Nazi enemy one. Before starting the war on 23 August 1939 German and Soviet authorities made Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union. It was a pact of non-aggression which guaranteed the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany neutral status in case if one of them was attacked by a third party. In addition to this Treaty of non-aggression, there was a secret protocol on dividing Northern and Eastern Europe between Germany and the USSR [ 1] .
Theoretically the USSR wouldn't participate in war, but on 22 June 1941 the Soviet Union was attacked by the Nazi army. This event immediately changed the role of the USSR in this war. This means that this state firstly entered the war as a participant and secondly transformed from the German ally to its enemy. These changes were accompanied by the transformation of relations between the Soviet Union and anti-Nazi block.
Nevertheless Britain could consider the USSR to be the potential ally. The BBC Directive Instructing Programme Makers to Take Care with Russia of 1940 [ 2] makes a big interest for researches as according to it year before the Soviet Union entered WWII the BBC warned programme makers to control everything said about this country. So since this period British media space started creation of "special attitude" to Soviet Russia, which probably depended on strategy to make the USSR British ally. It's on the one hand, but on the other hand we can consider this step as an attempt not to become an enemy of Russia.
In more than one year, being attacked, the USSR joined allies against Germany. This expectancy course of Great Britain was justified. That's interesting that on the next day when the Soviet Union was attacked the BBC asked the central controlling agency (the Controller of Programmes) how to represent the USSR. The answer was short but clear: the jokes about Russia had to be excluded [ 3] . It's easy to explain, because the USSR suffered from Nazi invasion and British government understood that in any case the Soviet Union would join the anti-Nazi block.
In few days, on 27 June 1941, this approach was more or less elaborated and presented to the BBC [ 4] . This media resource considered to be the most important instrument of British informational influence, therefore this directive was sent to all key people in there. The whole message urged for caution on Russia issue in programming. This kind of attitude to the Soviet Union fixed British-Russian relation growing closer. The governmental organization on propaganda issue, the Political Warfare Executive [ 5] , faced an easy problem of Russia representation in British media.
During summer and autumn 1941 British government worked on elaboration of appropriate approach to the Soviet Union representation as it was tricky question for the whole Western world. It's important to emphasize that this question was raised before the USSR became an ally of Great Britain and other Western states. The main message of authorities to programme makers was to be careful with what is being said during the broadcasts [ 6] .
After the Soviet Union and Great Britain signed an agreement of mutual help (on 12 July 1941) [ 7] this tendency was kept and developed by Britain. For instance, after the Moscow conference, where Moscow and London divided Southern-Eastern Europe between them, the BBC Directive to Include in That Day's Broadcasts to Europe Historically appeared which said to focus on German aspects in the agreement avoiding Greek question [ 8] .
The British position towards the USSR in media didn't' changed radically as almost from the very beginning of war internal media was controlled on the issue of Russia representation. Unfortunately, the BBC archive doesn't propose any materials on this topic before July 1940, therefore it's impossible to speak about whole war period. Nevertheless, during reviewed time Britain carefully controlled all the information about the Soviet Union, elaborated a special approach how to represent it. After the USSR joined allies Britain developed that program as in some cases British interests were connected to the Soviet ones.
Speaking about the Soviet Union representation in internal British media market is impossible without focusing on ideological side of the question. I've answered the question "how was the Soviet Union represented in the domestic British media market during the war years?", but the question "how did British government manage not to fall into propaganda of communism supporting the USSR in its media market?" still remains. This question wasn't so urgent first of all before June 1941 and then before Battle of Stalingrad, which started victory period for the Soviet Union.
These two stages made the issue of communism propaganda more important as it was difficult for British authorities to praise the USSR avoiding praising the communist regime.
After Germany attacked the Soviet Union Britain felt the closeness of possibility to make Russia their ally. It brought a big hope for Western countries to change the way of war. Nevertheless since the first days of German invasion to the USSR British government, the Political Warfare Executive as well, was afraid of this enthusiastic mood as it could lead to the growth of revolutionary ideas in the British society [ 9] . Phobia of communism excited in Western world before the WWII, but too big hope for the communist country could indirectly indicate inability of Western world regimes. This phobia made government to narrow the possible way of programming about the USSR.
The interest and enthusiasm towards Russia increased in the UK society [ 10] . From the beginning of the USSR participation in the WWII the debates on if the Soviet anthem should be played or not during broadcastings were held and lasted for more than a half of the year and finally on 22 January 1942 it was allowed. But this was a really risky step from the British authorities' side as "The Internationale" said: "Enslaved masses, stand up, stand up" - that called for revolution, that's why it was allowed to play only "when the occasion really does call for it" [ 11] . Until the victory of Soviet army in Battle of Stalingrad, February 1943, the British government tried to restrict indirect propaganda of communism. We can consider this period to be the first stage.
The second stage changed the situation as after this victory and the great turn of the war course the UK couldn't avoid praise to the USSR so the way to evade communism propaganda became even more narrowed.
The interesting case how the USSR was praised is the programmes "In Honour of Russia" and debates around it. It had to be held on the anniversary of The October Revolution and the goal of this project was to tell British about Russia itself, its people and culture [ 12] . Foreign Office was really interested in this programme and asked "not to 'glorify the regime" speaking about the Soviet Union. They emphasized that it's important to make sure that Russian songs are played in Russian language as they glorified communism [ 13] . It shows the approach to the Soviet issue in broadcasting. Everything seemed to be well prepared and well controlled by governmental bodies.
The UK government elaborated a narrow way in broadcasting for speaking about Russia. The phobia of communism made them to work on conceptualization of the Soviet Union representation that was easier before the Battle of Stalingrad. After the turn in the war course British authorities had nothing to do with glorifying of Russia, but did it in a special and proper way.
Elaboration of this "narrow way" of Russia representation was in responsibility of Anthony Eden, who was a member of the Political Warfare Executive [ 14] . His contribution to this issue was really important as he was one of the key participants in the process.
Anthony Eden was born in 1897 on the North of England. The members of his family occupied high state position. He studied at Eton. When he was 18 years old he served in the Army being at WWI where he lost two of his brothers.
After demobilisation he entered Oxford University with the major of Eastern languages. He tried to be a member of the Parliament but didn't succeed. He got married. His second attempt to enter the Parliament was successful.
In 1925 Eden became a personal secretary of Frederic Locker-Lampson, who was the Minister of the Interior. He was sent to Geneva to participate in the work of League of Nations and in September 1931 he was assigned as a vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs. Soon, in 1934 he became a Minister of Foreign Affairs and made his first official tour to Berlin and Rome. He work in the cabinet of Chamberlain, which worked on pacification of aggressive states. Nevertheless he understood that this course of foreign affairs is not effective, that's why tender his resignation in February 1938.
After Germany occupied Czechoslovakia Eden proposed to make a union of three, the UK, France and the USSR.
When the UK entered the war he became the Minister of Dominions. Than in the cabinet of Churchill he worked as the Minister of Foreign Affairs. As a head of Foreign Office he participated in Moscow, Tehran and Yalta conferences.
The BBC archive provides only with materials representing the period of June 1940 - May 1945; this doesn't allow me to speak about the whole WWII.
The careful attitude of British government towards the USSR was the headline in domestic media market. Startingfrom 1940, even before the Soviet Union was attacked, the UK authorities took a temperate position commenting this state. The first step in this programme was to exclude jokes about Russia from broadcasts. During almost whole WWII internal medium were controlled on the issue of Russia representation. Step by step British medium moved from non-jokes waiting position towards open support and glorifying. Nevertheless, during reviewed time Britain carefully controlled all the information about the Soviet Union, elaborated a special approach how to represent it. The government was always interested in the USSR representation, that's why always revised scripts of programmes.
The first reason of such a big attention from the authorities' side to this question is the fear of communism propaganda. The UK government elaborated a narrow way in broadcasts for speaking about Russia which allowed programme-makers to praise Russia, but to evade the propaganda of communism. The phobia of communism made them to work on conceptualization of the Soviet Union representation that was easier before the Battle of Stalingrad. After the turn in the war course British authorities had nothing to do with glorifying of Russia, but did it in a special and proper way.