春秋战国时期社会转型研究

发布时间：2018-08-23 10:19

【摘要】： 春秋战国时期处在中国历史上承前启后的重要时期，因为通过春秋战国时期中国完成了社会的转型。在此之前中国社会仍然是血缘社会，在此之后虽然仍有浓重的血缘色彩，但转向了地缘社会；在此之前是封建诸侯、贵族分权的时代，在此之后是专制独裁、皇帝集权的时代。这个转型的结果虽然早已成为历史事实，并通过历史将这个事实转化为中华民族的最终选择，但这种选择模式由此成为中国文化的深层内核，而且通过文化的因循性对现实社会有着潜移默化的影响。中国自夏朝以来的四千年历史可以分为前后两大阶段，春秋战国时期就是这两大阶段之间的转型时期。周天子授民授疆土，建立了封邦建国的血缘宗法政治体系。但从另一侧面上说，正是这种封邦建国的政权构成形式成为破坏血缘宗法制度的因素。各级贵族宗主为了赋税增值、扩大征兵而争夺人民，不断破坏支撑宗法制度的血缘体系，开始实行编户齐民政策，从而导致血缘宗法制度崩溃，地缘郡县政治确立，最后形成中央集权制度，春秋战国时期是这一变化的具体实现过程。政府编户的目的是要有效地掌握人口，编户的基础在于人民身份的齐等。造成编户的因素相当复杂，赋税之增值、封建之崩溃皆有关联，但其中最主要的动机就是扩大征兵。这一变革的步伐自春秋中晚期以后逐渐开始并日益加速，到战国以后，编户齐民逐渐成为中央政府的新基础。相对于血缘宗法封邦建国的权力分散制度来说，战国七雄中央政府的特色是集权，已具备秦汉统一政府的雏型和基础。就政治学的角度而言，地缘集权政治存在的主要条件有三个：第一，国家政府、而非贵族宗主，直接掌握全国人力资源；第二，国家通过直接向劳动者征收实物地租、而非接受各级宗主的层层贡献，控制全国财税资源；第三，国家统治者、而非血缘宗法的最大宗子，拥有国家的最高法权。法权是名分上的承认，承认国君所代表的政府是统治者，广大的人民群众是被统治者。而政府存在的实质，主要在于人口和财税，而财税又以土地和人口为本，故《大学》曰：“有德此有人，有人此有土，有土此有财，有财此有用。”因此，由国家直接控制人口和财税的编户齐民措施才成为推动春秋战国时期社会转型的根本因素。以地缘形式组织社会，以国家的力量直接控制民力，这种与传统血缘体系完全不同的社会组织方法最早开始于齐国。管仲相齐“叁其国而伍其鄙”、“作内政而寄军令”、“定民之居，成民之事”，所谓“士就闲燕、工就官府、商就市井、农就田野”的分居方法，本身就是对血缘族居传统的颠覆，也是对新型社会组织的探索。因此管仲治齐实际上是春秋战国社会转型在制度上的开始。《左传·僖公十五年》记载的晋国“作州兵”，乃是指扩张征兵的范围，使得原本不服兵役的野人也同国人一样开始服兵役。五十年后，即公元前590年，鲁国“作丘甲”，也走上兵力扩张的道路。公元前538年，郑简公二十八年，即鲁国“作丘甲”五十二年之后，郑国“作丘赋”。以上具有代表性的改革，不仅在法律上确立了军事上全民皆兵的责任，而且也是政治上由血缘宗法走向地缘郡县的必由之路。作为地缘政治社会典型代表的郡县制度开始于春秋中后期，其发展过程经历了“县鄙”之县、“县邑”之县和“县制”之县三个阶段。西周以及春秋前期的县属于“县鄙”之县，仅仅是一种区域性范围的名称，而非地域性的组织。春秋中晚期到战国时代县发展到“县邑”之县，已经形成一种地域性的组织，并且已经具备了作为一级地方政府的某些方面的职能。战国时代，县的形式发展到“郡县”之县，，完全形成一级地方组织，成为新的君主集权国家的政权基础。中央集权制是指国家政权全部集中于中央政府，而各级地方政府只能根据中央政府的指令办事。其主要特征有：第一、中央严格控制地方，不允许有相对独立的行政体系存在，地方政府在政治、经济、军事和文化上，必须严格地服从中央政府的政令。第二，作为对中央控制地方制度的辅助，在官吏任免上重视对地方官员的任用和监督，地方官员的任用、升迁和调动，皆由中央决定。第三，地方向中央政权负责，绝对执行下级服从上级、地方服从中央的原则，无限制地将权力高度集于中央。西周土地制度是以原始血缘宗法组织做为指导原则，表现为血缘贵族的宗族土地所有制。具体采取了在封建内部逐级分割所有的方式，即全部土地的最高所有权属于周王，所谓“溥天之下，莫非王土”，这些土地又通过逐级分封的办法，由各级贵族世袭占有，从而使各级贵族具有了实际上土地的部分所有权。从春秋前期开始，各国纷纷尝试着新的土地管理形式和人口控制方式，以期达到富国强兵的目的。具体表现为齐国的“相地而衰征”、晋国的“作爰田”以及鲁国的“初税亩”。形成于战国时代的国家授田制度，是建立在编户齐民基础之上的新型土地管理形式，其典型代表是魏国的李悝变法和秦国的商鞅变法以后所形成的土地制度。在政治体制和经济体制发生变化的同时，随着血缘宗法社会的破坏，知识阶层逐渐从贵族中分离出来，尝试着成为独立的阶级，并努力承担着道统传承的责任；当地缘政治社会的形成以后，知识阶层又努力向着政统靠拢，逐渐丧失了原本就极为有限的独立地位，转而追求内心的道德完善，也逐渐丧失了监督政统的责任，客观上促使了古代君主专制政体的形成。虽然春秋战国时代转型前后社会性质的差异是主要的，但并不是说二者之间没有联系，恰恰相反，由于文化的因循，转型以后的地缘社会仍然保留了大量的血缘因素。作为中华文化鼎盛时期之一的百家争鸣，既建立了值得后世追寻和仰慕的优秀文化品质，同时也失落了某些积极的东西。所以，我们不仅要回顾春秋战国时期社会转型之后的地缘政治体制，还要回顾社会转型之前的血缘宗法体制。
[Abstract]:The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were an important period in Chinese history, because China completed the social transformation through the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The result of this transformation has long been a historical fact and has been transformed into the ultimate choice of the Chinese nation through history, but this mode of choice has thus become the deep core of Chinese culture, and has a subtle influence on the real society through the cultural order. China's 4000-year history since the Xia Dynasty can be divided into two stages, the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period are the transitional periods between the two stages.
Zhou Tianzi granted land to the people and established the patriarchal clan system of the feudal state. On the other hand, it was the constitution of the feudal state that undermined the patriarchal clan system. In the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, this change was realized concretely.
The purpose of the government's household editor is to master the population effectively. The basis of the household editor lies in the equality of the people's identities. Since then, the central government has gradually become a new foundation for the editorial households and the people. Compared with the power decentralization system of the patriarchal feudal state, the central government of the seven heroes in the Warring States Period is characterized by centralization of power, which has the embryonic form and foundation of the unified government of Qin and Han Dynasties.
From the political point of view, there are three main conditions for the existence of geocentralism: first, the state government, not the aristocratic lords, directly grasps the human resources of the whole country; second, the state controls the national financial and taxation resources by levying real rent directly to the laborers, rather than accepting the contributions of different levels of lords; third, the state rulers, The largest ancestor of the blood clan system has the highest legal power of the state.
The essence of the existence of the government lies mainly in population and taxation, and the fiscal and taxation are based on land and population. Therefore, the University said, "There are people with virtue, there are people with land, there are people with land, there are people with wealth, there is wealth with wealth, there is wealth with useful." Only when the household directly controlled the population and finance and taxation, did the measure of uniting the household and the people become the fundamental factor to promote the social transformation in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods.
Guan Zhong's method of organizing society in a geographic form and directly controlling the people's power with the power of the state, which is totally different from the traditional blood system, began in Qi State. Guan Zhongzhi's separation from the countryside is in itself a subversion of the tradition of consanguinity and clan residence and an exploration of new social organizations.
Fifty years later, that is, in 590 B.C., the State of Lu "made Qiujia" and embarked on the road of military expansion. In 538 B.C., the State of Zheng Jianjia 28 years, that is, the State of Lu "made Qiujia". Fifty-two years later, Zheng Guo "made Qiu Fu". The above representative reforms not only established the military responsibility of all the people, but also the only way from blood patriarchal clan to geo-county in politics.
As a typical representative of geopolitical society, the county system began in the middle and late Spring and Autumn Period, and its development process experienced three stages: the county of "county despicable", "county of county" and "county system". The County of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the early Spring and Autumn Period belonged to the county of "county despicable". It was only a regional name, not a regional organization. From the mid-late Warring States Period to the Warring States Period, the county developed into the county of "county" and had formed a regional organization, and had already possessed some functions as a local government.
Centralization refers to the centralization of state power in the central government, whereas local governments at all levels can only act according to the instructions of the central government. Second, as a supplement to the local system controlled by the central government, the appointment and supervision of local officials, the appointment, promotion and transfer of local officials are decided by the central government. Third, the local authorities are responsible to the central government, absolutely execute the principle of subordinating the lower levels to the higher levels, subordinating the local authorities to the central authorities, and unrestrainedly exerting a high degree of power. Centrally located.
The land system of the Western Zhou Dynasty took the primitive patriarchal clan system as the guiding principle and was represented by the patriarchal land ownership of the aristocratic clan. By the aristocracy of all levels of hereditary possession, so that aristocrats at all levels have the actual part of the land ownership.
Since the early Spring and Autumn Period, many countries have tried new forms of land management and population control in order to achieve the goal of enriching the country and strengthening the army. The typical representative of the new form of land management is the land system formed after the Li Xin Reform of Wei and Shang Yang Reform of Qin.
While the political and economic systems have changed, with the destruction of patriarchal clan society, the intellectuals have gradually separated from the aristocracy, trying to become an independent class, and striving to assume the responsibility of inheritance of the Taoist tradition; after the formation of the geopolitical society, the intellectuals have tried to close to the political system and gradually lost the original. The very limited independent status, and the pursuit of inner moral perfection, also gradually lost the responsibility of supervising the political system, objectively promoted the formation of ancient autocratic monarchy.
Although the difference of social nature between the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period is the main one, it does not mean that there is no connection between the two. On the contrary, due to the cultural reasons, the geo-society after the transformation still retains a large number of blood factors. So we should not only look back on the geopolitical system after the social transformation in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period, but also the patriarchal clan system before the social transformation.
【学位授予单位】：陕西师范大学
【学位级别】：博士
【学位授予年份】：2006
【分类号】：K225

【引证文献】