明清两湖疫灾：空间分布、影响因素与社会应对

发布时间：2018-03-05 12:23

  本文选题：疫病　切入点：明清时期　出处：《华中师范大学》2016年博士论文　论文类型：学位论文

【摘要】：“疫灾”是疫病灾害的简称,疫病与环境之间存在着非常密切的关系。本文分析明清时期两湖地区的疫灾疫灾流行概况、特点、原因。而两湖地区地貌类型复杂,不同地貌下的经济、人口方面存在差异,故该地区疫灾的流行具有区域差异的特点。因此拟将两湖地区的疫灾流行特点按照平丘地区和山岳地区分开研究。并试图以社会史的角度来论述政府(包括朝廷及地方官府)、地方势力(包括绅士、富户及慈善组织)和民众在疫灾爆发时采取的不同应对措施。明清期间两湖地区疫灾十分频繁,平丘地区疫灾趋势在某段时期集中,如集中分布于1580、1640、1700、1720、1830年代,而山岳地区疫灾较平缓。明末1580、1640年代,平丘地区在“小冰期”影响下,气候变寒冷干燥,旱灾频发,从而发生严重疫灾。相反,清代1700、1720、1830年代,两湖地区气候温暖湿润,降水集中,加上平原地区的垸田开发和山岳地区的盲目开发,洪涝灾害频发,从而造成了严重的疫灾。此外,通过分析个别年份的病种,1640年代鼠疫(bubonic plague)猖獗于华北地区,随后扩散至河北、河南、山东,甚至江南地区。根据疫病死亡率、鼠群的移动及死亡、气候与鼠蚤关系、李自成与张献忠起义的移动径路等来推断,在两湖平丘地区流行的疫灾很有可能是鼠疫。另外,关于1832年发生的疫灾,1820年代霍乱传入中国,并在1821年前后形成全国范围的流行(以江南地区和河北平原最为广泛),据当时贸易、水灾导致的状况及高死亡率,不能排除霍乱的可能性。总之,明清时期平丘地区的疫灾主要是由自然灾害引起的,而与中国其他地区又有密切的联系。与平丘地区相反,山岳地区地理环境因素对疫病流行的影响很大。因该区森林密布,“瘴气”盛行,为地方性疫病(如疟疾)的流行打下基础,而大规模的皇木采办及民众滥伐森林,则直接导致了疫病的流行。随着山林的不断开发,地方性疫病逐渐减少,但由于生态破坏,进入清代,水灾频发,从而导致的疫灾次数大大增加了。另外,山岳地区的盗寇侵犯、荆襄起义、苗族起义、张献忠与李自成农民军、王朝叛乱(吴三桂、金声桓的反清活动)、白莲教起义等各种动乱持续不断。盗贼侵犯、动乱频繁,对于该地区疫病发生有深刻的影响。明清时期,该地区随着外来人口的增加,与外界交流日益频繁,天花、霍乱这样的疫病开始传入,由此引发了多次大规模的疫灾。总之,山岳地区的疫灾与地理环境、战乱及人口流动等因素有关。从对疫灾的应对来看,由于明清时期平丘与山岳地区之间疫灾成因不同,所以政府、社会力量和民众都会采取不同的应对措施。已有研究已经表明明清两朝对疫灾采取比较消极的措施,但考虑到政府对一般水旱灾害采取比较积极的措施,而平丘地区的疫灾发生原因是水旱灾害,山岳地区则有所不同。另外,两湖平丘地区为全中国的“粮仓”,经济发达。因此,可以推测政府对两湖平原和山岳地区采取不同的态度,发生水旱灾害时对平丘地区赈灾更多,对因自然灾害而产生的疫灾自然也有附加的防治效果。而且,地方绅士和一些社会组织都以各自的方式展开救疗活动,在一定程度上弥补了官方救助的不足,尤其是在官府对于基层社会的作用日益削弱的情况下,地方绅士很大程度上承担了救济灾民的角色。另外,民众的对应方面,因为相同的时代的背景下,虽然与山岳地也有相似之处。平丘地区疫灾与自然灾害有关,自然信仰多。并且城隍信仰等官方认可的信仰非常普遍,或者通过对神灵崇拜的官方化,将民间祈神驱病等活动控制在官绅的主导之下。因此,平丘地区的许多民间信仰对于稳定社会秩序,维持政府的统治有着极大的帮助。与之相对应,明清时期两湖山岳地区(尤其湘南地区),被认为是“蛮荒之地”、“瘴气之地”,存在着地域偏见与民族歧视的文化概念,经常将该区作为贬官之地。此外,由于地理特殊性和战乱的原因,这里经常爆发疫灾,但对政府而言,控制一个地区的稳定是最重要的,救灾则是其次,因此对山岳地区的疫灾非但几乎没有救助活动,疫灾流行反而会成为政府镇压战乱的机会。因此山岳地区不能经常得到政府的救济而无法采取合适的措施以应对疫病。而且地方官员及地方力量得救助也有限。没有救助情况下,山岳地区民间信仰非常盛行,尤其巫术崇拜广泛蔓延,而且民间宗教也利用巫术与疫灾夸张教势。反抗统治阶级的活动中常常借用迷信和巫术的手段,因此山岳地区的民间信仰不利于国家统治。
[Abstract]:"Epidemic disease disaster" is referred to, there is a very close relationship between disease and environment. This paper analyzes the causes of Hunan and Hubei during the Ming and Qing Dynasties epidemic plague epidemic situation, characteristics, and types of landforms. Hubeiandhunan complex under different landforms of the economy, there are differences in population, so the area of plague epidemic it has regional difference characteristics. Therefore intends to plague epidemic characteristics in the area of Hunan and Hubei plain and hilly area and mountain area in accordance with the separate study. And try to discuss the government from the perspective of social history (including the imperial court and the local government), local forces (including the gentleman, the rich and charitable organizations) of different measures and people in disease at the outbreak of the plague epidemic area of Hunan and Hubei during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Very frequent, plain and hilly area of epidemic disaster tendency in a certain period, such as concentrated in the 15801640170017201830 era, and mountain areas of epidemic disaster was gentle. Ming At the end of 15801640s, the flat hill area in the "Little Ice Age" under the influence of cold and dry climate change, drought prone, resulting in serious epidemic disaster. On the contrary, the Qing Dynasty in 170017201830s, Hunan and Hubei area of warm and humid climate, rainfall concentration, blind development in plain areas coupled with the development of wetland and mountain areas, flood disasters, and caused a serious epidemic. In addition, through the analysis of individual year disease, 1640s (bubonic plague) on the rampant plague in North China, then spread to Hebei, Henan, Shandong, and the south region. According to the disease death rate and death, mobile mouse group, the relationship between climate and fleas, mobile Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong uprising the path to infer, in plain and hilly area of popular lakes epidemic is likely to plague. In addition, on 1832 the epidemic of cholera in 1820s, and the incoming China, formed in 1821 after the Popular (in the area south of the Yangtze River and Hebei plain is the most widely used), according to the trade situation, flooding and high mortality of cholera, the possibility cannot be ruled out. In short, flat hill area in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the epidemic is mainly caused by natural disasters, and other areas China are closely linked. Contrary to Ping Qiu a large area, the geographical environment of mountain area factors of epidemic disease. Because of the dense forest, "miasma" prevalent for local diseases (such as malaria) lay the foundation of the epidemic, and large-scale timber procurement and public deforestation, lead directly to the epidemic disease. With the continuous development of the mountains, where of the disease gradually decreased, but because of ecological destruction, in the Qing Dynasty, floods, resulting in the number of epidemic disaster greatly increased. In addition, the mountain area of the invasion, Jingxiang uprising, Miao uprising, Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zicheng farmer In the dynasty, the rebellion (Wu Sangui, Kim Shenghuan anti Qing activities), and other troubled white lotus uprising continued. Thieves violated, frequent unrest in the region, the disease occurrence has a profound impact. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the region with the increase of the foreign population, increasingly frequent exchanges with the outside world of smallpox, cholera, the disease started incoming, resulting in many large-scale epidemics. In short, the mountain area of epidemic disaster and geographical environment, the factors related to the war and the floating population. From the epidemic disaster response, the Ming and Qing Dynasties and the area between the plain and hilly mountain epidemic causes different, so the government, social forces and people will take different the existing measures. Studies have shown that during the two dynasties take negative measures of epidemic disaster, but considering the government to take more active measures of flood and drought disasters, and the flat hill area of epidemic disaster occurrence reason is Flood and drought disasters, mountain areas is different. In addition, Hunan and Hubei area for the whole Chinese Ping Qiu's "granary", the economy developed. Therefore, the government can speculate in Jianghan Plain and mountain area to take a different attitude, the event of floods and droughts in plain and hilly area of disaster relief more, due to natural disasters of natural epidemic disaster there are additional control effect. Moreover, the local gentry and social organizations have launched rescue activities in their own way, to a certain extent, make up for the lack of official assistance, especially in the government for basic social role is weakened under the condition of the local gentry largely assumed the role of victims. In addition for the public, because of the same age, although there are also similarities to mountain area. Ping Qiu epidemic disaster and natural disasters, natural faith. And the worship of the other official 鐨勪俊浠伴潪甯告櫘閬，

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