“山东问题”与美国的门户开放政策，1914-1922

发布时间：2018-04-20 04:39

本文选题：山东问题 + 门户开放政策　；参考：《山东师范大学》2008年博士论文

【摘要】： 山东问题是上世纪一、二十年代远东国际关系中的一个焦点问题,无论是在中国近代史还是在远东国际关系史上,都产生过重要影响。门户开放政策是美国越过西半球,用自己的方式影响世界的最初尝试。在当前全球化的世界经济格局中,仍不难发现它的影子。而国内外学术界至今尚无人就山东问题与门户开放政策的关系进行专题性综合研究。本文在全球史观的指导下,在远东国际关系格局的宏观框架内,论述了山东问题发生、发展、解决的全过程,阐明了美国的门户开放政策对山东问题的影响,并以山东问题论证了门户开放政策在这一历史时期内实施的特点、效果。本文的主要观点是:尽管山东问题经历了多国易手、微妙莫测的变化过程,美国针对山东问题所采取的行动也前后不一、令人费解,但这只是问题的表象。实质上美国在这一时期对华政策的大方针始终未变,它始终坚持不以武力为后盾的门户开放政策,变化的只是国际关系的总体格局。本文主要分四章展开论述。第一章考察了胶州租借地由德国易手于日本的国际背景及美国围绕这一事件所做的反应。第一次世界大战伊始,日本便以履行“英日同盟”的义务为借口,匆忙对德国宣战,夺取了德国在中国胶州的租借地。德国自1898年开始在山东苦心经营的势力范围随之易手于日本。日本此举不是偶然的反应,而是长期推行“大陆政策”的结果。而旨在对中国及亚太地区进行扩张侵略的“大陆政策”,又与美国在这一地区实行的传统政策——“门户开放”政策产生了冲突。然而,由于美国在远东地区的实力和利益十分有限,面对日本强有力的挑战,美国的反应十分谨慎。在仅仅做出了一点表面姿态之后,美国便知难而退,姑息了日本破坏远东均势的行为。由于中国软弱涣散至无力维护自己的权益,由于欧洲列强深陷战争泥潭无暇关注远东事务,由于美国不愿为门户开放政策付出太大的代价,日本发现“独占中国的门户洞开着”。第二章考察了日本在战时围绕山东问题同列强开展的一系列秘密外交活动及美国围绕日本挑战其门户开放政策的行为所进行的力度有限的斗争。为了使占据中国山东的行为“合法化”,日本先是向中国提出了“二十一条”要求,接着同欧洲列强签订了多项秘密条约,最后与中国达成了《关于山东问题的换文》。日本的这些战时扩张行为,既与美国倡导的“新外交”格格不入,又是对其门户开放政策的变本加厉的挑战。为此,美国同日本进行了一系列的明争暗斗,但大多以美国的外交失败而告终。特别是双方签署的《兰辛-石井协定》,更是美国在战时向日本妥协的一个典型事例。由于美国维护其门户开放政策的手段十分软弱,到第一次世界大战结束时,日本已在中国乃至整个远东取得了独树一帜的“优越地位”。第三章考察了在巴黎和会上美日围绕山东问题展开的斗争,并分析了美国在这一斗争中失利的原因。在第一次世界大战结束后由战胜国召集的巴黎和会上,美国开始向日本战时在远东的扩张行为发动反攻。而反攻的一项重要内容就是支持中国收回山东权益。然而,由于战时秘密条约的羁绊,更由于威尔逊总统建立国际联盟的愿望超越了一切理想主义的主张,美国在日本“不取得山东就不在国际联盟条约上签字”的威胁面前再一次败下阵来,违心地将德国在山东的一切权益转让给日本。中国以拒签《凡尔赛条约》抗议这种无视国际正义的行为。值得玩味的是,威尔逊为实现国联计划出卖了山东,而山东问题反过来又成为美国国会否决国联计划的重要借口。第四章考察了华盛顿会议上山东问题在门户开放的大趋势下得以较公正解决的过程和原因。巴黎和会没有能够解决远东国际关系问题。包括山东问题在内的多个悬而未决的问题仍然影响着远东的和平与稳定。为此,美国倡议召开了华盛顿会议。在这次会议上,美国的门户开放政策被赋予新的更明确的解释,“门户开放”从此由一种政治原则上升为法律原则,并为列强以条约形式重新认可。日本面对不可逆转的国际大趋势,被迫与中国签订了《解决山东悬案条约》,山东又回到中国的怀抱。但是,由于门户开放政策的执行没有强制力的保障,它的矛盾性与妥协性依然存在,因而日本在中国的“特殊利益”并没有完全消除。本文从山东问题的发展过程得出结论:尽管美国维护门户开放政策的愿望是始终如一的,但因国际关系格局变幻不定及门户开放政策本身存在着诸多矛盾,因而美国在远东实施这一政策的实效是有限的。本文的创新点主要是首先就山东问题与门户开放的关系进行了专题性综合研究,并发现了门户开放政策存在着自身难以克服的重重矛盾。其中包括“机会均等”与“势力范围”的矛盾,目标与手段的矛盾,责任与利益的矛盾,理想与现实的矛盾等,从而起到了为深化门户开放政策研究添砖加瓦的作用。
[Abstract]:The problem of Shandong is a focus in the international relations between the first and the 1920s in the Far East , both in China ' s recent history and in the history of Far East International Relations . The open door policy is the first attempt by the United States to cross the western hemisphere and influence the world in its own way .

The main point of view of this paper is that , although the problem of Shandong has experienced many changes in the hands of many countries , the actions taken by the United States against Shandong are different , and it is only a problem . In essence , the United States has not changed its policy towards China in this period . It has always insisted that the open door policy of not using force as the backing is only the overall pattern of international relations . This article mainly focuses on four chapters .

The first chapter examines the international context and the response of the United States about the event in Japan . In the beginning of the First World War , Japan made a hasty declaration of war against Germany , seizing Germany ' s concession in the Chinese state . However , the U.S . response was very cautious in the face of a strong challenge to China and the Asia - Pacific region . However , as the country was weak and lax enough to maintain its interests , Japan found " the portal of the exclusive Chinese opening " because of the reluctance of the United States to pay too much for the open door policy .

In the second chapter , Japan has made a series of secret treaties with Japan in order to " legalise " a series of secret diplomatic activities carried out by Japan in wartime around Shandong and its open door policy around Japan . In the end , Japan has entered into a series of secret treaties with Japan .

In the third chapter , the United States began its struggle against the issue of Shandong in the United States on the United States and the United States , and analyzed the reasons why the United States had lost interest in this struggle . One of the important elements of the counter - offensive was to support China ' s withdrawal from Shandong ' s rights . However , since President Wilson ' s desire to establish the League of Nations transcended all idealists in the wake of the war - time secret treaty , the United States failed to protest against such disregard of international justice in Japan .

In the fourth chapter , the process and the cause of the more just settlement of the problem of Shandong in the open door of the Washington Conference have been examined . The United States initiative has not been able to solve the problem of Far East international relations . In this meeting , the United States initiative has been given a new and more explicit interpretation . In this regard , the United States initiative has been given a new and more explicit interpretation . In this regard , the United States initiative has been given a new and more explicit interpretation . In this regard , the United States initiative has been forced to enter into a settlement with China , which has returned to China . However , since the implementation of the open door policy is not guaranteed by coercive force , its contradiction and the proper existence remain , so the " special interest " of Japan in China has not been completely eliminated .

From the development process of Shandong , this paper concludes that although the desire to maintain the open door policy in the United States is always consistent , the effect of the United States on the implementation of this policy in the Far East is limited because of the contradictions between the changing patterns of international relations and the open door policy .

The innovation point of this paper is first to study the relationship between Shandong question and the open door , and find out that the open door policy has many contradictions which are difficult to overcome . These include the contradiction between " equal opportunity " and " potential scope " , the contradiction between the goal and the means , the contradiction between the responsibility and the interests , the contradiction between the ideal and reality , etc . , thus playing a role in deepening the open door policy research .

【学位授予单位】：山东师范大学
【学位级别】：博士
【学位授予年份】：2008
【分类号】：K261;K712.5

【引证文献】