组织行为管理中的谈判与冲突

冲突是一个过程，开始时一方觉察到另一方已经或即将产生负面影响的东西。在组织中，冲突可以看作是管理和组织行为的问题，可能由于权力和政治。它也可以被定义为一个互动的过程表现为个人，团体或组织的不兼容，分歧或不和谐内的。当一个政党实现另一个不被认同的目标时冲突九可能会发生。 （组织行为，概念，争议与应用，第五版，史蒂芬P.罗宾，第428）（组织行为，理解和管理工作生活，第八版，笔耕文化推荐期刊，加里·约翰，第426）。有时候，冲突可能有助于鼓励新的解决问题，增强公司的创造力。

谈判的定义

谈判是在做有关各方有不同的偏好共同决定的过程。它可以是从别人在决策的过程中的得到自己想要的一种方式。 （谈判，定义和类型，在谈判中，文化差异和谈判过程中，micharl mehnert，pg.2经理人的问题），例如，当求职者洽谈起薪，员工为生病的孩子协商谈判提早离开岗位。在这种情况下，它是为了预防冲突和解决现有冲突。 （组织行为，理解和管理工作生活，第八版，加里·约翰，第431）

Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has or about to negatively affects something that the first party cares about. In organization, conflict can be regarded as a reality of management and organizational behavior and can be related to power and politics. It can also be define as an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement or dissonance within or between social entitles in an individual, group or organization. Conflicts can be occurs when one parties blocks the goal of achievement of another and become aware of the incompatibility. (Organizational behavior, concept, controversies and applications, fifth edition, Stephen P. Robbin, pg. 428) As for attitudes, the conflicting parties might develop a dislike for each other as unreasonable and develop negative stereotypes of their opposites. (Organizational behavior, understanding and managing life at work, eighth edition, Gary johns, pg. 426) Sometimes, conflicts are always bad for a company. It might help to encourage new solutions to problems and enhance creativity for the company.

谈判的定义 Definition of negotiations

Negotiation is the process of making joint decision when the parties involved have different preferences. It can be a way of getting what you want from others in the process of making decisions. (Negotiation, definition and types, manager’s issues in negotiation, cultural differences and the negotiation process, micharl mehnert, pg.2) For example, when a job applicant negotiate for starting salaries, employees negotiate for better job assignments and people with sick kids negotiate to leave job early. In this situation, it is an attempt to either prevent conflict or resolve existing conflicts. (Organizational behavior, understanding and managing life at work, eighth edition, Gary johns, pg. 431)


文化的定义 Definition of culture

Culture is an essential part in internal analysis. It is powerful enough to promote or hinder the implementation of strategy an intended purpose. Culture is the collection of values, beliefs, behaviors, customs and attitudes that distinguish one society from another. Everyone will have different culture bec

ause we growth in different environment and education. We learn behavior from one member of a society to another for example; parents teach their children table manners. There are few type elements of culture which every business will face when doing business with others especially for those companies who are doing international business.

The main element of culture was language. As language is an important means by which a society’s members communication with each other, we must understand their language culture when doing a business with other parties so that we would not misunderstand their meaning. In the other hand, culture difficulty is also most of the international business will face. Words may have different meanings to person with diverse culture background. Religion is also another element of culture. It refers to a specific set of beliefs and practices regarding the spiritual realm. Understanding religions may help to understand how religion affects business practices.

Types of conflicts
There are two types of conflicts which are functional and dysfunctional conflicts.

Functional conflict is a situation in which there is a disagreement between people or group who has different opinions that benefits the organization’s performance. People who involve in this type of conflicts are willing to help one another to solve problem and they will be willing to listen to other members even they have their own ideas. There are a lot of advantages that can bring to an organization on these types of conflicts. It not only can lead positive change for the organization, it also can improve the working relationships and team performance of employees. As in functional conflict, they will spread out all their knowledge and develop a better awareness of themselves, in the other hand group members can get to learn a lot of new ideas.

Dysfunctional conflict was an opposite with functional conflict, the people involve are not willing to work together with one another to solve problems. Dysfunctional conflict is a confrontation or interaction between groups that harms the organization or hinders the achievement of organization goals. People in this types of conflict normally only will focus on the conflict itself and the parties involved. Normally it will happen to high-profile conflicts situation. In this situation, they even will come out some threat, deception and verbal abuse to other parties when having conflicts. Management will always try to eliminate this conflict mode as it is not good.

冲突的水平 Level of conflicts

There are four levels of conflicts which are intrapersonal conflicts, interpersonal conflicts, intergroup conflicts and inter-organizational conflicts.

Intrapersonal conflict is an actual or perceived pressure from incompatible goals or expectations. It is an internal struggle within an individual. The

re are three situations of intrapersonal conflicts which are approach-approach conflict, avoidance-avoidance conflicts and approach-avoidance conflicts. Approach-approach conflict is a conflict between two positive goals. (Corporate conflict management, concepts and skills,Eirene Leela Rout, 2007, pg.28) It will occur when an individual has to choose between two attractive. For instance, when a person apply for two jobs that having same job scopes and the company offer him in the same time, he or she have to choose either one of it. Besides, avoidance-avoidance conflict involves a choice between two equal unattractive options. The person has to decide one of them even they are in two negative goals. (Corporate conflict management, concepts and skills,Eirene Leela Rout, 2007, pg.29) For instance, a guy wishes to work as an insurance agent but before that, he has to take a test for his license. Even he do not like it, he still have to take it or else he cannot be an insurance agent. Lastly, approach-avoidance conflict will happen when an individual have to decide whether to approach or avoid a particular goal that are having both negative and positive quality. (Corporate conflict management, concepts and skills,Eirene Leela Rout, 2007, pg.30) This is a very common situation as many goals will have mixed outcomes for an individual. For instance, a student may choose a course that he or she likes that give job assurance after they complete the course. They might find some subjects or syllabus that they do not interest with it.

Negotiation is the process of making joint decision when the parties involved have different preferences. It can be a way of getting what you want from others in the process of making decisions. (Negotiation, definition and types, manager’s issues in negotiation, cultural differences and the negotiation process, micharl mehnert, pg.2) For example, when a job applicant negotiate for starting salaries, employees negotiate for better job assignments and people with sick kids negotiate to leave job early. In this situation, it is an attempt to either prevent conflict or resolve existing conflicts. (Organizational behavior, understanding and managing life at work, eighth edition, Gary johns, pg. 431)

Culture is an essential part in internal analysis. It is powerful enough to promote or hinder the implementation of strategy an intended purpose. Culture is the collection of values, beliefs, behaviors, customs and attitudes that distinguish one society from another. Everyone will have different culture because we growth in different environment and education. We learn behavior from one member of a society to another for example; parents teach their children table manners. There are few type elements of culture which every business will face when doing business with others especially for those companies who are doing international business.

The main element of culture was language. As languag

e is an important means by which a society’s members communication with each other, we must understand their language culture when doing a business with other parties so that we would not misunderstand their meaning. In the other hand, culture difficulty is also most of the international business will face. Words may have different meanings to person with diverse culture background. Religion is also another element of culture. It refers to a specific set of beliefs and practices regarding the spiritual realm. Understanding religions may help to understand how religion affects business practices.

Functional conflict is a situation in which there is a disagreement between people or group who has different opinions that benefits the organization’s performance. People who involve in this type of conflicts are willing to help one another to solve problem and they will be willing to listen to other members even they have their own ideas. There are a lot of advantages that can bring to an organization on these types of conflicts. It not only can lead positive change for the organization, it also can improve the working relationships and team performance of employees. As in functional conflict, they will spread out all their knowledge and develop a better awareness of themselves, in the other hand group members can get to learn a lot of new ideas.

Dysfunctional conflict was an opposite with functional conflict, the people involve are not willing to work together with one another to solve problems. Dysfunctional conflict is a confrontation or interaction between groups that harms the organization or hinders the achievement of organization goals. People in this types of conflict normally only will focus on the conflict itself and the parties involved. Normally it will happen to high-profile conflicts situation. In this situation, they even will come out some threat, deception and verbal abuse to other parties when having conflicts. Management will always try to eliminate this conflict mode as it is not good.

There are four levels of conflicts which are intrapersonal conflicts, interpersonal conflicts, intergroup conflicts and inter-organizational conflicts.

Intrapersonal conflict is an actual or perceived pressure from incompatible goals or expectations. It is an internal struggle within an individual. There are three situations of intrapersonal conflicts which are approach-approach conflict, avoidance-avoidance conflicts and approach-avoidance conflicts. Approach-approach conflict is a conflict between two positive goals. (Corporate conflict management, concepts and skills,Eirene Leela Rout, 2007, pg.28) It will occur when an individual has to choose between two attractive. For instance, when a person apply for two jobs that having same job scopes and the company offer him in the same time, he or she have to choose either one of it. Besides, avoidance-avoidance conflict involves a choice between

two equal unattractive options. The person has to decide one of them even they are in two negative goals. (Corporate conflict management, concepts and skills,Eirene Leela Rout, 2007, pg.29) For instance, a guy wishes to work as an insurance agent but before that, he has to take a test for his license. Even he do not like it, he still have to take it or else he cannot be an insurance agent. Lastly, approach-avoidance conflict will happen when an individual have to decide whether to approach or avoid a particular goal that are having both negative and positive quality. (Corporate conflict management, concepts and skills,Eirene Leela Rout, 2007, pg.30) This is a very common situation as many goals will have mixed outcomes for an individual. For instance, a student may choose a course that he or she likes that give job assurance after they complete the course. They might find some subjects or syllabus that they do not interest with it.

Handy four dimensions and Thomas Kilmen Model
Handy’s four dimensions of organizational cultures classified into four major types which is power culture, role culture, task culture and person culture. He points out that these types of organizational culture are usually tied to particular structure and design of an organization. Every organization will have different culture, especially in a large business. It even can have a mix cultures in a same department. This is because people wish to enjoy their work in different types of organizational culture. They will feel satisfy with their job if they like the organization culture.

In power culture, Handy definite power culture by using a spider’s web. He put all important spiders sitting in the centre. The closer you are to the spider, the more influence you have. Power culture can usually found in small organizations or family-manage business. (intergrated management, 2009 edition, CIMA, Oxford, pg.98) Who are in power culture normally have more power orientated and politically minded, they able to take risk and do not rate security highly. These types of culture can be change easily due to it is adaptable, informal and decision-making is quick. Nonetheless, size is a problem for power culture. For instance, Franchise.

In addition, Handy used a building supported by columns and beams to describe role culture. These organizations that use role culture have consistent system and are very predictable. It main power source was position, likewise the rules and produces are the main methods of influence. The work of the functional areas and the interactions between them are controlled by rules and procedures for instance, government rules. Role will find it more difficult to adapt the change compare to power culture. Organizations that using role culture needs an expert power because the power will derives from the personal position.

Besides, task culture is job-or project-oriented, Handy definite it by using a

net. It usually happen when the organization have a project. In task culture, those people who are highly skilled and specialized in their own area of expertise will group together for a projectIt can be a difficulty for an organization to control because everyone will have different ideas.Lastly, person culture is also known as support culture. Not every organization can exist or produce person culture because not every individual will feel that he or she is the best. It is an unusual culture. The organization would have a person culture when appear group of people decide that it is in their own interests to band together to do their own thing.

Moreover, Thomas-Kilemann Models is a conflict mode which included avoiding, accommodating, competing, compromising and collaborating. These approaches to managing conflict are a function of both how assertive and how cooperative you are in trying to satisfy.

Avoiding is a conflict management style characterized by low assertiveness of one’s own interests and low cooperation with the other party. (Organizational behavior, understanding and managing life at work, eighth edition, Gary johns, pg. 430) Some people definite it as ‘’hiding the head in the sand’’ response. This is because avoiding takes place when a person put the problems on hold or withdrawal the conflicts. Their goal is to delay. Before applying avoiding approve to conflicts, the projects or program manager should determine it whether the issue it is possible to delay and will it be a risk if hold on it. They must clearly know if they delay it will it be influence to the next steps of decisions.

Accommodation is the willingness of one party in a conflict to place his or her opponent’s interests above his or her own. (Organizational behavior, concept, controversies and applications, fifth edition, Stephen P. Robbin, pg. 436) It also known as smoothing. In accommodation, it has low concern with personal goals but high concern with relationships. The person who is accommodation will cooperate with other party rather than asserting its own interests. Normally their goal is to meet the needs of the other person.

In addition, competing in Thomas-Kilmann model has high concern personal goals but low concern with relationship. It is an approach which identified with win-lose intention or with forcing behavior to win one’s position. In competing, people will not concern for the other party opinions, they expect a competitive mode of bargaining. An individual will choose this approach when fighting for a principle at any cost and managers will use this mode when a quick and decisive action is needed.

Next, compromising is in moderate concern for both personal goals and relationships which works well in situation in temporary agreements that needed to reach quickly. This approach will occurs when the have an interest in achieving a particular outcome but not to a point where they

are willing to invest the time or effort to fully collaborate or compete. It is more on short-term solutions. The people in this approach believe that continued disagreement is more costly than compromising.

Lastly, collaborating has high personal goals and relationships. It is a situation where the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concern of all parties. (Organizational behavior, concept, controversies and applications, fifth edition, Stephen P. Robbin, pg. 435) Collaborating approve is a problem-solving rather than problem-generating. It is a win-win approach to resolving conflicts whereby other parties may take advantages of this conflicts resolution.

Change management and conflicts management
As mention earlier, change will be happen in every organization due to internal or external forces. Organization must have good management of change for employees because change can lead to conflicts. Although changes in an organization are to have a better goals and objectives but employees might need time to make use with it.

Conflicts can be a natural part of life which will happen to an individual or an organization. There are few types of conflicts which may occur in a business which are task conflicts, relationship conflicts and process conflicts. Task conflicts will happen over content and goals of the work within a group or team. Conflicts will happen because members have different opinions on the goals. They will fight for their own point of view, objectives and goals. In the other hand, relationship conflicts will always happen on interpersonal relationships, it also known as personality clashes. It is very common to see this kind of conflict in a big organization. Racist is one of the examples with it. Process conflict is conflict over how works get done. It involves argument on how work should be organized and accomplished. For instance, when a group of people discussing about projects.

Moreover, conflicts will also happen when an organization change something new. As all the employees had makes use with the old goals they do not use with the new goals of way by doing their works. Conflicts will also happen when members could not find the same common values on the new goals so that they will not cooperate with it. Organization should provide enough training for them to prevent them to have productivity gaps comfortably. In the other hand, conflicts can also be occurs when change in leadership. Employees might feel dissatisfaction with the new leader style as they have to change from the old style of doing things to follow the new leadership. Leadership or managers should have good communication and relationship with employees so that they will understand the purpose of your goals and they will follow it.

Change is often harder for employees to adopt as they need times to make use with the new change. It is very important for manager to sol

ve conflicts between employees. When changing of something new, manager should list out clearly on what is the purpose of changing. Managers must inform who will be participating in the change process and provide knowledge to guide them for the change process.

Apart of that, different culture background can also be a reason why conflicts occur. As mention earlier in definition of culture, everyone will have different culture as we grown up in different environment and education is different. In the same time, their attitudes will be different too. Sometimes people might feel that some attitudes are actually not really serious but the other parties might feel different. Different culture will have different style of doing business. Because of this, conflicts will always happen when each other works together in a same project.